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Managing server energy and operational costs in hosting centers

Managing server energy and operational costs in hosting cent...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Chen, Yiyu Sivasubramaniam, Anand Das, Amitayu Wang, Qian Qin, Wubi Gautam, Natarajan Dept. of IE Penn State University University Park PA 16802 Dept. of CSE Penn State University University Park PA 16802 Dept. of ME Penn State University University Park PA 16802

The growing cost of tuning and managing computer systems is leading to out-sourcing of commercial services to hosting centers. These centers provision thousands of dense servers within a relatively small real-estate in order to host the applications/services of different customers who may have been assured by a service-level agreement (SLA). Power consumption of these servers is becoming a serious concern in the design and operation of the hosting centers. The effects of high power consumption manifest not only in the costs spent in designing effective cooling systems to ward off the generated heat, but in the cost of electricity consumption itself. It is crucial to deploy power management strategies in these hosting centers to lower these costs towards enhancing profitability. At the same time, techniques for power management that include shutting down these servers and/or modulating their operational speed, can impact the ability of the hosting center to meet SLAs. In addition, repeated on-off cycles can increase the wear-and-tear of server components, incurring costs for their procurement and replacement. This paper presents a formalism to this problem, and proposes three new online solution strategies based on steady state queuing analysis, feedback control theory, and a hybrid mechanism borrowing ideas from these two. Using real web server traces, we show that these solutions are more adaptive to workload behavior when performing server provisioning and speed control than earlier heuristics towards minimizing operational costs while meeting the SLAs. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： computer systems

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A statistical framework for efficient monitoring of end-to-end network properties

A statistical framework for efficient monitoring of end-to-e...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Chua, David Kolaczyk, Eric D. Crovella, Mark Mathematics and Statistics Dept. Boston University Computer Science Dept. Boston University

Network service providers and customers are often concerned with aggregate performance measures that span multiple network paths. Unfortunately, forming such network-wide measures can be difficult, due to the issues of scale involved. As a result, it is of interest to explore the feasibility of methods that dramatically reduce the number of paths measured in such situations while maintaining acceptable accuracy. In previous work [4] we have proposed a statistical frame-work for efficiently addressing this problem. The key to our method lies in the observation and exploitation of the fact that network paths show significant redundancy (sharing of common links). We now make three contributions in [3]: (1) we generalize the framework to make it more immediately applicable to network measurements encountered in practice;(2) we demonstrate that the observed path redundancy upon which our method is based is robust to variation in key network conditions and characteristics, including the presence of link failures;and (3) we show how the framework may be applied to address three practical problems of interest to network providers and customers, using data from an operating network.

关键词： computer networks

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Low traffic overlay networks with large routing tables

Low traffic overlay networks with large routing tables

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Tang, Chunqiang Buco, Melissa J. Chang, Rong N. Dwarkadas, Sandhya Luan, Laura Z. So, Edward Ward, Christopher IBM T. J. Watson Research Center Hawthorne NY 10532 Computer Science Department University of Rochester Rochester NY 14627-0226

The routing tables of Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) can vary from size O(1) to O(n). Currently, what is lacking is an analytic framework to suggest the optimal routing table size for a given workload. This paper (1) compares DHTs with O(1) to O(n) routing tables and identifies some good design points;and (2) proposes protocols to realize the potential of those good design points. We use total traffic as the uniform metric to compare heterogeneous DHTs and emphasize the balance between maintenance cost and lookup cost. Assuming a node on average processes 1,000 or more lookups during its entire lifetime, our analysis shows that large routing tables actually lead to both low traffic and low lookup hops. These good design points translate into one-hop routing for systems of medium size and two-hop routing for large systems. Existing one-hop or two-hop protocols are based on a hierarchy. We instead demonstrate that it is possible to achieve completely decentralized one-hop or two-hop routing, i.e., without giving up being peer-to-peer. We propose 1h-Calot for one-hop routing and 2h-Calot for two-hop routing. Assuming a moderate lookup rate, compared with DHTs that use O(log n) routing tables, 1h-Calot and 2h-Calot save traffic by up to 70% while resolving lookups in one or two hops as opposed to O(log n) hops. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： computer networks

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On the performance characteristics of WLANs: Revisited

On the performance characteristics of WLANs: Revisited

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Choi, Sunwoong Park, Kihong Kim, Chong-Kwon School of Computer Science and Engineering Seoul National University Seoul 151-744 Korea Republic of Dept. of Computer Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette IN 47907 United States

Wide-spread deployment of infrastructure WLANs has made Wi-Fi an integral part of today's Internet access technology. Despite its crucial role in affecting end-to-end performance, past research has focused on MAC protocol enhancement, analysis and simulation-based performance evaluation without sufficient consideration for modeling inaccuracies stemming from inter-layer dependencies, including physical layer diversity, that significantly impact performance. We take a fresh look at IEEE 802.11 WLANs, and using a combination of experiment, simulation, and analysis demonstrate its surprisingly agile performance traits. Our main findings are two-fold. First, contention-based MAC throughput degrades gracefully under congested conditions, enabled by physical layer channel diversity that reduces the effective level of MAC contention, In contrast, fairness and jitter significantly degrade at a critical offered load. This duality obviates the need for link layer flow control for throughput improvement but necessitates traffic control for fairness and QoS. Second, TCP-over-WLAN achieves high throughput commensurate with that of wireline TCP under saturated conditions, challenging the widely held perception that TCP throughput fares poorly over WLANs when subject to heavy contention. We show that TCP-over-WLAN prowess is facilitated by the self-regulating actions of DGF and TCP congestion control that jointly drive the shared physical channel at an effective load of 2-3 wireless stations, even when the number of active stations is very large. Our results highlight subtle inter-layer dependencies including the mitigating influence of TCP-over-WLAN on dynamic rate shifting. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： Local area networks

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On AS-level path inference

On AS-level path inference

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Mao, Z. Morley Qiu, Lili Wang, Jia Zhang, Yin Univ. of Michigan Univ. of Texas Austin AT and T Labs. - Research

The ability to discover the AS-level path between two end-points is valuable for network diagnosis, performance optimization, and reliability enhancement. Virtually all existing techniques and tools for path discovery require direct access to the source. However, the uncooperative nature of the Internet makes it difficult to get direct access to any remote end-point. Path inference becomes challenging when we have no access to the source or the destination. Moveover even when we have access to the source and know the forward path, it is nontrivial to infer the reverse path, since the Internet routing is often asymmetric. In this paper, we explore the feasibility of AS-level path inference without direct access to either end-points. We describe RouteScope-a tool for inferring AS-level paths by finding the shortest policy paths in an AS graph obtained from BGP tables collected from multiple vantage points. We identify two main factors that affect the path inference accuracy: the accuracy of AS relationship inference and the ability to determine the first AS hop. To address the issues, we propose two novel techniques: a new AS relationship inference algorithm, and a novel scheme to infer the first AS hop by exploiting the TTL information in IP packets. We evaluate the effectiveness of RouteScope using both BGP tables and the AS paths collected from public BGP gateways. Our results show that it achieves 70% - 88% accuracy in path inference. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： computer networks

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Evaluating the impact of simultaneous multithreading on network servers using real hardware

Evaluating the impact of simultaneous multithreading on netw...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Ruan, Yaoping Pai, Vivek S. Nahum, Erich Tracey, John M. Department of Computer Science Princeton University Princeton NJ 08544 IBM T.J.Watson Research Center Yorktown Heights NY 10598

This paper examines the performance of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) for network servers using actual hardware, multiple network server applications, and several workloads. Using three versions of the Intel Xeon processor with Hyper-Threading, we perform macroscopic analysis as well as microarchitectural measurements to understand the origins of the performance bottlenecks for SMT processors in these environments. The results of our evaluation suggest that the current SMT support in the Xeon is application and workload sensitive, and may not yield significant benefits for network servers. In general, we find that enabling SMT on real hardware usually produces only slight performance gains, and can sometimes lead to performance loss. In the uniprocessor case, previous studies appear to have neglected the OS overhead in switching from a uniprocessor kernel to an SMT-enabled kernel. The performance loss associated with such support is comparable to the gains provided by SMT. In the 2-way multiprocessor case, the higher number of memory references from SMT often causes the memory system to become the bottleneck, offsetting any processor utilization gains. This effect is compounded by the growing gap between processor speeds and memory latency. In trying to understand the large gains shown by simulation studies, we find that while the general trends for microarchitectural behavior agree with real hardware, differences in sizing assumptions and performance models yield much more optimistic benefits for SMT than we observe. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： computer networks

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Algorithmic aspects of capacity in wireless networks

Algorithmic aspects of capacity in wireless networks

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Kumar, V.S. Anil Marathe, Madhav V. Parthasarathy, Srinivasan Srinivasan, Aravind P.O. Box 1663 Los Alamos NM 87545 Department of Computer Science Virginia BioInformatics Institute Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA 24061 Department of Computer Science University of Maryland College Park MD 20742 Department of Computer Science Institute for Advanced Computer Studies University of Maryland College Park MD 20742

This paper considers two inter-related questions: (i) Given a wireless ad-hoc network and a collection of source-destination pairs {(s i,ti)}, what is the maximum throughput capacity of the network, i.e. the rate at which data from the sources to their corresponding destinations can be transferred in the network? (ii) Can network protocols be designed that jointly route the packets and schedule transmissions at rates close to the maximum throughput capacity? Much of the earlier work focused on random instances and proved analytical lower and upper bounds on the maximum throughput capacity. Here, in contrast, we consider arbitrary wireless networks. Further, we study the algorithmic aspects of the above questions: the goal is to design provably good algorithms for arbitrary instances. We develop analytical performance evaluation models and distributed algorithms forrouting and scheduling which incorporate fairness, energy and dilation (path-length) requirements and provide a unified framework for utilizing the network close to its maximum throughput capacity. Motivated by certain popular wireless protocols used in practice, we also explore "shortest-path like" path selection strategies which maximize the network throughput. The theoretical results naturally suggest an interesting class of congestion aware link metrics which can be directly plugged into several existing routing protocols such as AODV, DSR, etc. We complement the theoretical analysis with extensive simulations. The results indicate that routes obtained using our congestion aware link metrics consistently yield higher throughput than hop-count based shortest path metrics. Copyright 2005 acm.

关键词： Wireless telecommunication systems

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Rate-adaptive time synchronization for long-lived sensor networks

Rate-adaptive time synchronization for long-lived sensor net...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Ganeriwal, Saurabh Ganesanl, Deepak Hansen, Mark Srivastava, Mani B. Estrin, Deborah Department of Electrical Engineering University of California Los Angeles CA 90095 Department of Computer Science University of Massachusetts MA 01003 Department of Statistics University of California Los Angeles CA 90095 Department of Computer Science University of California Los Angeles CA 90095

Time synchronization is critical to sensor networks at many layers of its design and enables better duty-cycling of the radio, accurate localization, beamforming and other collaborative signal processing. While there has been significant work in sensor network synchronization, measurement based studies have been restricted to very short-term (few minutes) datasets and have focused on obtaining accurate instantaneous synchronization. Long-term synchronization has typically been handled by periodic re-synchronization schemes with beacon intervals of a few minutes based on the assumption that long-term drift is too hard to model and predict. Thus, none of this work exploits the temporally correlated behavior of the clock drift. Yet, there are incredible energy gains to be achieved from better modeling and prediction of long-term drift that can provide bounds on long-term synchronization error across a sensor network. Better synchronization can lead to significantly lower duty-cycles of the radio, simplify signal processing and can enable an order of magnitude greater lifetime than current techniques. We measure, evaluate and analyze in-depth the long-term behavior of synchronization skew and drift on typical Mica sensor nodes and develop an efficient long-term time synchronization protocol. We use four real time data sets gathered over periods of 12-30 hours in different environmental conditions to study the interplay between three key parameters that influence long-term synchronization - synchronization rate, history of past synchronization beacons and the estimation scheme. We use this measurement-based study to design an online adaptive time-synchronization algorithm that can adapt to changing clock drift and environmental conditions while achieving application-specified precision with very high probability. We find that our algorithm achieves between one and two orders of magnitude improvement in energy efficiency over currently available time-synchronization appro

关键词： Sensors

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A reactive channel model for expediting wireless network simulation

A reactive channel model for expediting wireless network sim...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Hu, Chunyu Hou, Jennifer C. Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Dept. of Computer Science University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

A major problem with leveraging event-driven, packet-level simulation environments, such as ns2 [6], J-Sim [1], OpNet [2]), and QualNet [3]), in conducting wireless network simulation is the vast number of events generated, a majority of which are related to signal transmission in the PHY/MAC layers. In this extended abstract, we investigate the operations of signal transmission in the various stages: signal propagation, signal interference, and interaction with the PHY/MAC layers, and identify where events can be reduced without impairing the accuracy. We propose to leverage the MAC/PHY state information, and devise (from the perspective of network simulation) a reactive channel model (RCM) in which nodes explicitly register their interests in receiving certain events according to the MAC/PHY states they are in and the corresponding operations that should be performed. The simulation study indicates that RCM renders an order of magnitude of speed-up without compromising the accuracy of simulation results. An advantage of RCM with respect to the implementation is that there is no need to re-design the channel model for each specific MAC layer, and the modification made in the MAC/PHY layers is quite modest (e.g., a few API changes). This, coupled with the performance gain, suggests that RCM is an attractive, light-weight mechanism for expediting wireless network simulation.

关键词： Telecommunication networks

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Empirical evaluation of multi-level buffer cache collaboration for storage systems

Empirical evaluation of multi-level buffer cache collaborati...

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SIGMETRICS 2005: international conference on measurement and modeling of computer systems

作者： Chen, Zhifeng Zhang, Yan Zhou, Yuanyuan Scott, Heidi Schiefer, Berni Department of Computer Science University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign IL United States IBM Canada Toronto Laboratory

To bridge the increasing processor-disk performance gap, buffer caches are used in both storage clients (e.g. database systems) and storage servers to reduce the number of slow disk accesses. These buffer caches need to be managed effectively to deliver the performance commensurate to the aggregate buffer cache size. To address this problem, two paradigms have been proposed recently to collaboratively manage these buffer caches together: the hierarchy-aware caching maintains the same I/O interface and is fully transparent to the storage client software, and the aggressively-collaborative caching trades off transparency for performance and requires changes to both the interface and the storage client software. Before storage industry starts to implement collaborative caching in real systems, it is crucial to find out whether sacrificing transparency is really worthwhile, i.e., how much can we gain by using the aggressively-collaborative caching instead of the hierarchy-aware caching? To accurately answer this question, it is required to consider all possible combinations of recently proposed local replacement algorithms and optimization techniques in both collaboration paradigms. Our study provides an empirical evaluation to address the above questions. Particularly, we have compared three aggressively-collaborative approaches with two hierarchy-aware approaches for four different types of database/file I/O workloads using traces collected from real commercial systems such as IBM DB2. More importantly, we separate the effects of collaborative caching from local replacement algorithms and optimizations, and uniformly apply several recently proposed local replacement algorithms and optimizations to all five collaboration approaches. When appropriate local optimizations and replacement algorithms are uniformly applied to both hierarchy-aware and aggressively-collaborative caching, the results indicate that hierarchy-aware caching can deliver similar performance as aggre

关键词： Data storage equipment

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