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Individual color matching functions from cross-media color-matching experiment

color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2025年第2期50卷 132-143页

作者： Shen, Che Fairchild, Mark D. Rochester Inst Technol Munsell Color Sci Lab Rochester NY 14623 USA

Human color vision exhibits substantial variability, challenging the accurate measurement and reproduction of individual color appearances. This paper introduces a novel cross-media color-matching experiment that combines physical pigments and digital displays, providing a practical and efficient solution to measure individual color matching functions (CMFs). By using the Kubelka-Munk theory to synthesize broadband spectral pigments, optimized metameric pairs can be created to significantly differentiate categorical observers. Psychophysical experiment results reveal the superiority of specific CMFs for individual observers, surpassing standard models like the CIE 1931 2-degree CMFs. This study also underscores the significance of employing CMFs for personalized color reproduction and explores the potential benefits of using higher bit-depth displays, narrower-band displays, and increasing repetition counts to enhance the accuracy of the color matching process. The left side of this figure illustrates the experimental setup for the cross-media color matching study. A disk controlled by an Arduino system rotates using a motor, facilitating sequential color matches between soft copy and hard copy stimuli. Display color adjustments, including L*, C*, and hue dimensions, are made using dial devices. The experimental setup is enclosed by a black curtain, leaving two observation windows for participants, as shown on the right side of the figure. Furthermore, the color matching experiment is conducted under controlled D65 ambient light conditions. image

关键词： color matching functions Kubelka-Munk theory

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Individual color matching functions Estimated from Spectrally Narrow-Band Achromatic Matches Using Physiological Observer Models

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LEUKOS 2025年

作者： Li, Jiaye Hanselaer, Peter Smet, Kevin A. G. Katholieke Univ Leuven Light & Lighting Lab ESAT Technol Campus Gent Gebroeders Smetstr 1 B-9000 Ghent Belgium Natl Inst Stand & Technol Sensor Sci Div Gaithersburg MD USA

color matching functions (CMFs) are the basis of colorimetric calculations. However, several studies indicate discrepancies between the visual metamers and those predicted by the CIE standard CMFs. In the current study, the performance of the CIE Physiological Observer model has been characterized based on 10 degrees achromatic matches made with different narrowband primaries from 54 observers. Little improvement in matching accuracy was found after applying the observer age to the CIEPO06 age parameter. The Asano's Individual colorimetric Observer model (AICOM) was modified by adopting the CIE 203:2012 ocular media density function and removing the normalization of the LMS cone fundamentals before converting to XYZ-CMFs to improve the age-related estimation, termed AICOM+ model. The individual CMFs optimized using AICOM+ model showed a significant improvement in matching accuracy compared to the CIE standard CMFs, however, potentially overfitted. A sensitivity analysis on the AICOM+ model parameters was conducted, and a reduced model including the important parameters was proposed to accurately estimate individual CMFs. Based on a sensitivity analysis of the LED primaries, the 404 nm blue primary was found to be critical in explaining the observer variability in CMFs. Furthermore, up to four primary sets can predict the matching results accurately enough and save 50% of the experimental time. Through the shortened experiments and the reduced individual physiological observer model, we propose a rapid approach for estimating the individual observer CMFs.

关键词： color matching cone fundamentals color matching functions physiological observer model

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Specification of just-noticeable color difference for 2° and 10° stimuli using different color matching functions

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2025年第2期50卷 161-171页

作者： Zhao, Mengjing Wei, Minchen Hong Kong Polytech Univ Color Imaging & Metaverse Res Ctr Hung Hom Hong Kong Peoples R China

Just-noticeable color difference (JNCD) is important in color specification and characterization. The commonly referenced specification of JNCD (i.e., 0.004 or 0.0033 u ' v ' unit) is thought to originate from the MacAdam ellipses, which were derived using 2 degrees color stimuli and characterized using the CIE 1931 2 degrees color matching functions (CMFs). However, there is no universally agreed or clear definition of JNCD. Also, such a specification is widely used in various ways based on an assumption that it is applicable regardless of the actual size of the stimuli and CMFs. In this study, an experiment using a constant stimuli method was carried out. The human observers evaluated a series pairs of test and reference stimuli, with a field of view (FOV) of 2 degrees or 10 degrees. The chromaticities of the test stimuli were carefully calibrated using four standard CIE CMFs (i.e., CIE 1931 2 degrees, 1964 10 degrees, 2006 2 degrees, and 10 degrees CMFs). The results suggested that the widely used specification of JNCD seems to be derived based on the one standard deviation ellipses, the use of these four CMFs has little effect on the specification, and the JNCD value for stimuli with an FOV of 10 degrees is 0.0025-0.0027 u ' v ' unit depending on the CMFs.

关键词： color matching functions color specification

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A multi-primary trichromator to derive individual color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2024年第5期49卷 449-464页

作者： Shi, Keyu Luo, Ming Ronnier Rider, Andrew T. Huang, Tingwei Xu, Lihao Stockman, Andrew Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Extreme Photon & Intrumenta Hangzhou Peoples R China UCL Inst Ophthalmol London England Thousand Lights Lighting Changzhou Ltd Changzhou Peoples R China Hangzhou Dianzi Univ Sch Digital Media & Art Design Hangzhou Peoples R China

Measuring color matching differences between observers is an important means of investigating individual differences in human color vision. In this article, we introduce a new LED-based visual trichromator with which we have estimated color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities in a group of five normal observers. The trichromator has side-by-side semi-circular matching fields that are illuminated by two spectrally tunable LED light sources, each comprised of 18 LEDs with center wavelengths ranging from 400 to 700 nm. We used Maxwell's method to derive a set color match. A fixed triplet of red-green-blue (RGB) primaries produced the white standard field of 120 cd/m2 in one field. The other field, the mixture field, was illuminated by one of 11 different triplets of lights with various center wavelengths. Observers adjusted the intensities of the triplets in the mixture field to match the white standard field. All matches were made for field diameters of 2 degrees and 10 degrees of visual angle to allow comparisons with colorimetric standards and were repeated five times. Calibrations and tests showed that the trichromator and the measurements were stable and repeatable. Grassmann's laws predict that at the 11 color matches the excitations in the three cone types should be the same. Consequently, we can use those matches and a model of how cone spectral sensitivities vary between individuals to estimate the three underlying corneal cone spectral sensitivities for each observer (and thus how they vary from the standard (or mean) observer). We find good agreement with the CIE 2006 standards, but our observers show small but consistent differences. A multi-primary trichromator was utilized to obtain individual color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities, observers were tasked with completing five identical experiments using this device, and the resulting data will be compared with CIEPO06. image

关键词： color matching functions cone fundamentals multi-primary trichromator

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Impact of matching field size on color matching (functions) accuracy

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2023年第1期48卷 88-102页

作者： Li, Jiaye Hanselaer, Peter Smet, Kevin A. G. Katholieke Univ Leuven ESAT Light&Lighting Lab Ghent Belgium

Accurate colorimetry starts with accurate color matching functions (CMFs). Due to changes in the macular pigment and cone pigment optical densities at different retinal locations, different CMFs are required for different stimulus field sizes. To characterize the accuracy of the CIE recommendation for the use of 2 degrees and 10 degrees standard CMFs and the field-size dependent CIEPO06 model, in this study, a series of achromatic matching experiments were performed with 2 degrees, 4 degrees, 6 degrees, 8 degrees, and 10 degrees bipartite fields using spectrally narrowband primaries. Using the CIEPO06 model, optimal field sizes were estimated that minimize the chromaticity differences between the spectrally narrowband observer matches and the spectrally broadband achromatic target. It was found that the optimal field size estimated using the CIEPO06 model is close to half the actual bipartite field size in most cases, except for the 2 degrees field. The discrepancy between the 10 degrees bipartite field in Stiles & Burch's experiments and our optimal field size (6.54 degrees) was assumed to be due to different individual color comparison strategies. However, the results of experiments requiring specific observer gaze positions did not support this assumption and the reason for the discrepancy remains unclear. Confirming our earlier results, the primary set (636, 521, 447 nm) was again found to be largely insensitive to changes in CMFs and to provide the most accurate matches under various fields of view. The inter- and intra-observer variability ellipses for 2 degrees matches are larger than those for 10 degrees, consistent with Brown's finding for color discrimination ellipses. The magnitude of the intraobserver variability was similar for all field sizes, except for 2 degrees field size, where matching errors were larger for some primary sets.

关键词： colorimetry color matching functions color science color vision

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Effect of observer age and stimulus size on the color matching performance

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2024年第6期49卷 600-608页

作者： Shen, Yuetong Huang, Min Gao, Xinyuan Wei, Minchen Gong, Xuping Wang, Dan Beijing Inst Graph Commun Printing & Packaging Engn Beijing Peoples R China Hong Kong Polytech Univ Color Imaging & Illuminat Lab Kowloon Hong Kong Peoples R China Hong Kong Polytech Univ Color Imaging & Metaverse Res Ctr Kowloon Hong Kong Peoples R China

The performance of color matching functions (CMFs) is important to color specification and calibration. In comparison to the great number of studies focusing on the effect of primary set, few studies focused on how observer age and field of view (FOV) jointly affected the performance of CMFs. In this study, a color matching experiment with three different primary sets, which were carefully selected based on our previous study, was carried out by two observer age groups under four FOVs (i.e., 2 degrees, 4 degrees, 8 degrees, and 13 degrees). The results suggested that the observer age had a more significant effect than the FOV, and the change of the FOV did not introduce a systematic trend to the color matching results. Neither the CIE 1931 2 degrees nor 1964 10 degrees CMFs were found to accurately characterize the color matches. The CIE 2006 CMFs with the FOV set to the experiment setup also did not have good performance. On average, the CIE 2006 2 degrees CMFs were found to have the best performance, without considering the effects of the observer age and FOV. color matching experiment with different field of views. image

关键词： color matching functions display calibration

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color arrestor pixels for high-fidelity, high-sensitivity imaging sensors

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NANOPHOTONICS 2024年第16期13卷 2971-2982页

作者： Cho, Mingwan Jung, Joonkyo Kim, Myungjoon Lee, Jeong Yub Min, Seokhwan Hong, Jongwoo Lee, Shinho Heo, Minsung Kim, Jong Uk Joe, In-Sung Shin, Jonghwa Samsung Elect Semicond Res Ctr Samsungjeonja Ro 1 Hwaseong SI 18448 Gyeonggi Do South Korea Korea Adv Inst Sci & Technol Dept Mat Sci & Engn Daejeon 34141 South Korea Samsung Adv Inst Technol 130 Samsung Ro Suwon 16678 Gyeonggi Do South Korea

Silicon is the dominant material in complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) imaging devices because of its outstanding electrical and optical properties, well-established fabrication methods, and abundance in nature. However, with the ongoing trend toward electronic miniaturization, which demands smaller pixel sizes in CMOS image sensors, issues, such as crosstalk and reduced optical efficiency, have become critical. These problems stem from the intrinsic properties of Si, particularly its low absorption in the long wavelength range of the visible spectrum, which makes it difficult to devise effective solutions unless the material itself is changed. Recent advances in optical metasurfaces have offered new possibilities for solving these problems. In this study, we propose color arrestor pixels (CAPs) as a new class of color image sensors whose composite spectral responses directly mimic those of the human eye. The key idea is to employ linearly independent combinations of standardized color matching functions. These new basis functions allow our device to reproduce colors more accurately than the currently available image sensors with red-green-blue filters or other metasurface-based sensors, demonstrating an average CIEDE2000 color difference value of only 1.79 when evaluating 24 colors from the Gretag-Macbeth chart under standard illuminant D65. Owing to their high fidelity to the human eye response, CAPs consistently exhibit exceptional color reproduction accuracy under various spectral illumination compositions. With a small footprint of 860 nm height and 221 nm full-color pixel pitch, the CAPs demonstrated high absorption efficiencies of 79 %, 81 %, and 63 % at wavelengths of 452 nm, 544 nm, and 603 nm, respectively, and good angular tolerance. With such a high density of pixels efficiently capturing accurate colors, CAPs present a new direction for optical image sensor research and their applications.

关键词： color matching functions linear transformation color fidelity CMOS image sensor

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Improved Method for Evaluating and Specifying the Chromaticity of Light Sources

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LEUKOS 2023年第1期19卷 35-52页

作者： Royer, Michael Murdoch, Michael J. Smet, Kevin Whitehead, Lorne David, Aurelien Houser, Kevin Esposito, Tony Livingston, Jason Ohno, Yoshi Pacific Northwest Natl Lab Portland OR 97204 USA Oregon State Univ Sch Civil & Construct Engn Corvallis OR 97331 USA Rochester Inst Technol Munsell Color Sci Lab New York NY USA Katholieke Univ Leuven ESAT WaveCore Light & Lighting Lab Ghent Belgium Univ British Columbia Dept Phys & Astron Vancouver BC Canada Google LLC Mountain View CA USA Lighting Res Solut Philadelphia PA USA Studio TL New York NY USA Natl Inst Stand & Technol Sensor Sci Div Gaithersburg MD USA

This article describes a method for calculating and specifying light source chromaticity using the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) 2015 10 degrees color matching functions (CMFs), which, according to analysis of existing psychophysical experiment data, can reduce visual mismatch compared to specifications based on the traditional CIE 1931 2 degrees CMFs in architectural lighting applications. Specifically, this work evaluates, documents, and recommends for adoption by lighting standards organizations a supporting system of measures to be used with the CIE 2015 10 degrees CMFs: a new uniform chromaticity scale (UCS) diagram with coordinates (s, t), a measure of correlated color temperature (CCTst), and a measure of distance from the Planckian locus (Dst). It also presents options for updating nominal classification quadrangles. A complete method of this nature has not yet been standardized, which may be contributing to the slow uptake of the CIE 2015 CMFs. The proposed tools are analogous to u, v, CCT, Duv, and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C78.377 chromaticity specifications that are all currently defined in the CIE 1960 UCS diagram using the CIE 1931 2 degrees CMFs. While conceptually equivalent, the differences between the current standard method and the proposed st system are important for reducing unintended visual mismatch in the chromaticity of light. The implications of changing chromaticity specification methods are identified by a comparison over a diverse set of real light source spectral power distributions.

关键词： Chromaticity CCT Duv CCTst Dst color matching functions

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Formulae for generating standard and individual human cone spectral sensitivities

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2023年第6期48卷 818-840页

作者： Stockman, Andrew Rider, Andrew T. T. UCL Inst Ophthalmol London England Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Modern Opt Instrumentat Hangzhou Peoples R China UCL Inst Ophthalmol 11-43 Bath St London EC1V 9EL England

Normal color perception is complicated. But at its initial stage it is relatively simple, since at photopic levels it depends on the activations of just three photoreceptor types: the long- (L-), middle- (M-) and short- (S-) wavelength-sensitive cones. Knowledge of how each type responds to different wavelengths-the three cone spectral sensitivities-can be used to model human color vision and in practical applications to specify color and predict color matches. The CIE has sanctioned the cone spectral sensitivity estimates of Stockman and Sharpe (Stockman and Sharpe, 2000, Vision Res) and their associated measures of luminous efficiency as "physiologically-relevant" standards for color vision (CIE, 2006;2015). These LMS cone spectral sensitivities are specified at 5- and 1-nm steps for mean "standard" observers with normal cone photopigments and average ocular transparencies, both of which can vary in the population. Here, we provide formulae for the three cone spectral sensitivities as well as for macular and lens pigment density spectra, all as continuous functions of wavelength from 360 to 850 nm. These functions reproduce the tabulated discrete CIE LMS cone spectral sensitivities for 2-deg and 10-deg with little error in both linear and logarithmic units. Furthermore, these formulae allow the easy computation of non-standard cone spectral sensitivities (and other color matching functions) with individual differences in macular, lens and photopigment optical densities, and with spectrally shifted hybrid or polymorphic L- and M-cone photopigments appropriate for either normal or red-green color vision deficient observers.

关键词： CIE standards color matching functions cone fundamentals cone spectral sensitivity functions individual differences

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Method of color Image Formation Taking into Account the Human Perception Features 16

Method of Color Image Formation Taking into Account the Huma...

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16th International Conference on Machine Vision (ICMV)

作者： Obukhova, N. A. Motyko, A. A. Pozdeev, A. A. Smirnov, K. A. St Petersburg Electrotech Univ LETI St Petersburg Russia

ISBN: (纸本)9781510674639;9781510674622

Currently, color image formation is based on the CIE 1931 and CIE 1964 standard colorimetric observer models. Expansion of color gamuts of displays requires narrow spectral power distributions functions of their primary colors. In this case, the use of CIE 1931 and CIE 1964 models leads to color reproduction errors, as these models do not take into account the peculiarities of color vision of a particular user. To reduce color rendering errors caused by individual vision features, a method of color image formation based on the categorical observer model is proposed. The basis of the method is the evaluation of the categorical observer type using binary tests, which can be implemented outside the laboratory conditions on conventional displays with three basic colors. The effectiveness of the method has been confirmed experimentally.

关键词： colorimetry color matching functions observer metameric failure categorical observer model color reproduction

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