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Individual color matching functions from cross-media color-matching experiment

color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2025年第2期50卷 132-143页

作者： Shen, Che Fairchild, Mark D. Rochester Inst Technol Munsell Color Sci Lab Rochester NY 14623 USA

Human color vision exhibits substantial variability, challenging the accurate measurement and reproduction of individual color appearances. This paper introduces a novel cross-media color-matching experiment that combines physical pigments and digital displays, providing a practical and efficient solution to measure individual color matching functions (CMFs). By using the Kubelka-Munk theory to synthesize broadband spectral pigments, optimized metameric pairs can be created to significantly differentiate categorical observers. Psychophysical experiment results reveal the superiority of specific CMFs for individual observers, surpassing standard models like the CIE 1931 2-degree CMFs. This study also underscores the significance of employing CMFs for personalized color reproduction and explores the potential benefits of using higher bit-depth displays, narrower-band displays, and increasing repetition counts to enhance the accuracy of the color matching process. The left side of this figure illustrates the experimental setup for the cross-media color matching study. A disk controlled by an Arduino system rotates using a motor, facilitating sequential color matches between soft copy and hard copy stimuli. Display color adjustments, including L*, C*, and hue dimensions, are made using dial devices. The experimental setup is enclosed by a black curtain, leaving two observation windows for participants, as shown on the right side of the figure. Furthermore, the color matching experiment is conducted under controlled D65 ambient light conditions. image

关键词： color matching functions Kubelka-Munk theory

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Individual color matching functions Estimated from Spectrally Narrow-Band Achromatic Matches Using Physiological Observer Models

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LEUKOS 2025年

作者： Li, Jiaye Hanselaer, Peter Smet, Kevin A. G. Katholieke Univ Leuven Light & Lighting Lab ESAT Technol Campus Gent Gebroeders Smetstr 1 B-9000 Ghent Belgium Natl Inst Stand & Technol Sensor Sci Div Gaithersburg MD USA

color matching functions (CMFs) are the basis of colorimetric calculations. However, several studies indicate discrepancies between the visual metamers and those predicted by the CIE standard CMFs. In the current study, the performance of the CIE Physiological Observer model has been characterized based on 10 degrees achromatic matches made with different narrowband primaries from 54 observers. Little improvement in matching accuracy was found after applying the observer age to the CIEPO06 age parameter. The Asano's Individual colorimetric Observer model (AICOM) was modified by adopting the CIE 203:2012 ocular media density function and removing the normalization of the LMS cone fundamentals before converting to XYZ-CMFs to improve the age-related estimation, termed AICOM+ model. The individual CMFs optimized using AICOM+ model showed a significant improvement in matching accuracy compared to the CIE standard CMFs, however, potentially overfitted. A sensitivity analysis on the AICOM+ model parameters was conducted, and a reduced model including the important parameters was proposed to accurately estimate individual CMFs. Based on a sensitivity analysis of the LED primaries, the 404 nm blue primary was found to be critical in explaining the observer variability in CMFs. Furthermore, up to four primary sets can predict the matching results accurately enough and save 50% of the experimental time. Through the shortened experiments and the reduced individual physiological observer model, we propose a rapid approach for estimating the individual observer CMFs.

关键词： color matching cone fundamentals color matching functions physiological observer model

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Specification of just-noticeable color difference for 2° and 10° stimuli using different color matching functions

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2025年第2期50卷 161-171页

作者： Zhao, Mengjing Wei, Minchen Hong Kong Polytech Univ Color Imaging & Metaverse Res Ctr Hung Hom Hong Kong Peoples R China

Just-noticeable color difference (JNCD) is important in color specification and characterization. The commonly referenced specification of JNCD (i.e., 0.004 or 0.0033 u ' v ' unit) is thought to originate from the MacAdam ellipses, which were derived using 2 degrees color stimuli and characterized using the CIE 1931 2 degrees color matching functions (CMFs). However, there is no universally agreed or clear definition of JNCD. Also, such a specification is widely used in various ways based on an assumption that it is applicable regardless of the actual size of the stimuli and CMFs. In this study, an experiment using a constant stimuli method was carried out. The human observers evaluated a series pairs of test and reference stimuli, with a field of view (FOV) of 2 degrees or 10 degrees. The chromaticities of the test stimuli were carefully calibrated using four standard CIE CMFs (i.e., CIE 1931 2 degrees, 1964 10 degrees, 2006 2 degrees, and 10 degrees CMFs). The results suggested that the widely used specification of JNCD seems to be derived based on the one standard deviation ellipses, the use of these four CMFs has little effect on the specification, and the JNCD value for stimuli with an FOV of 10 degrees is 0.0025-0.0027 u ' v ' unit depending on the CMFs.

关键词： color matching functions color specification

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Large-field color matching functions

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2006年第1期31卷 18-29页

作者： Hu, Xin Houser, Kevin W. Univ Nevada Las Vegas NV 89154 USA Univ Nebraska Lincoln Omaha NE USA

color-matching functions (CMFs) were derived with the Maxwell method for 10 subjects using two field,conditions: (1) horizontally bisected circular 10 degrees and (2) vertically bisected rectangular 102 degrees (wide) X 50 degrees (high). The primary set was composed of 453-533-601 nm components with a mean full-width at half maximum of 18.3 nm;the reference field was illuminated with daylight fluorescent lamplight. Field size had a significant effect on the shape of the resulting CMFs. Under the large-field conditions subjects were less sensitive to shorter wavelengths as characterized with the (b) over bar function and had higher sensitivities to the longer wavelengths as characterized with the (r) over bar function. (C) 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

关键词： color matching color matching functions field size

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A multi-primary trichromator to derive individual color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2024年第5期49卷 449-464页

作者： Shi, Keyu Luo, Ming Ronnier Rider, Andrew T. Huang, Tingwei Xu, Lihao Stockman, Andrew Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Extreme Photon & Intrumenta Hangzhou Peoples R China UCL Inst Ophthalmol London England Thousand Lights Lighting Changzhou Ltd Changzhou Peoples R China Hangzhou Dianzi Univ Sch Digital Media & Art Design Hangzhou Peoples R China

Measuring color matching differences between observers is an important means of investigating individual differences in human color vision. In this article, we introduce a new LED-based visual trichromator with which we have estimated color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities in a group of five normal observers. The trichromator has side-by-side semi-circular matching fields that are illuminated by two spectrally tunable LED light sources, each comprised of 18 LEDs with center wavelengths ranging from 400 to 700 nm. We used Maxwell's method to derive a set color match. A fixed triplet of red-green-blue (RGB) primaries produced the white standard field of 120 cd/m2 in one field. The other field, the mixture field, was illuminated by one of 11 different triplets of lights with various center wavelengths. Observers adjusted the intensities of the triplets in the mixture field to match the white standard field. All matches were made for field diameters of 2 degrees and 10 degrees of visual angle to allow comparisons with colorimetric standards and were repeated five times. Calibrations and tests showed that the trichromator and the measurements were stable and repeatable. Grassmann's laws predict that at the 11 color matches the excitations in the three cone types should be the same. Consequently, we can use those matches and a model of how cone spectral sensitivities vary between individuals to estimate the three underlying corneal cone spectral sensitivities for each observer (and thus how they vary from the standard (or mean) observer). We find good agreement with the CIE 2006 standards, but our observers show small but consistent differences. A multi-primary trichromator was utilized to obtain individual color matching functions and cone spectral sensitivities, observers were tasked with completing five identical experiments using this device, and the resulting data will be compared with CIEPO06. image

关键词： color matching functions cone fundamentals multi-primary trichromator

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A Novel Method for Representation of Spectral Images Based on color matching functions

A Novel Method for Representation of Spectral Images Based o...

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International Conference on Materials Science and Technology

作者： Chen, Qiao Wang, Lijie Westland, Stephen Shenzhen Polytech Sch Media & Commun Shenzhen Peoples R China Univ Leeds Ctr Colour Design Technol Sch Design Leeds W Yorkshire England

ISBN: (纸本)9783037850152

Spectral images contain a large volume of data and the development of multispectral imaging systems places considerable demands on computer hardware and software compared with standard three-component or trichromatic image storage and processing. This study is concerned with lossy compression techniques for spectral images since many color images are intended for display for human perception and it is well established that images contain redundancies (in terms of their color, spatial and temporal properties) that can be removed without any loss in image quality. The lossy compression technique that is considered in this work is a low-dimensional linear model of spectral reflectance, with which the basis function are derived from color matching functions that are correlated with human visual system.

关键词： Spectral Image compression linear Model Reflectance color matching functions

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Multi-primary display optimized for CIE1931 and CIE1964 color matching functions

Multi-primary display optimized for CIE1931 and CIE1964 colo...

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9th Congress of the International-Colour-Association (AIC)

作者： Ohsawa, K König, F Yamaguchi, M Ohyama, N Telecommun Adv Org Japan Tokyo Japan

ISBN: (纸本)0819441287

A novel color reproduction method that is independent of the viewing angle is proposed. In this method two sets of tristimulus values corresponding to the CIE 1931 and the CIE 1964 color matching functions are reproduced using a six-primary display. The digital counts of the six-primary display to reproduce a given set of six-stimulus values can be uniquely determined by using a 6 by 6 matrix which is calculated from the two color matching functions and the primary spectra of the six-primary display. In this paper we report the result of the simulation that examines the color reproduction accuracy using this method when a spectrum of the object is given. Comparing the color reproduction accuracy achieved by the 6-primary display using our method with that by a current RGB display it is verified that the proposed method can improve the accuracy.

关键词： spectrum color matching functions multi-primary display

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Impact of matching field size on color matching (functions) accuracy

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2023年第1期48卷 88-102页

作者： Li, Jiaye Hanselaer, Peter Smet, Kevin A. G. Katholieke Univ Leuven ESAT Light&Lighting Lab Ghent Belgium

Accurate colorimetry starts with accurate color matching functions (CMFs). Due to changes in the macular pigment and cone pigment optical densities at different retinal locations, different CMFs are required for different stimulus field sizes. To characterize the accuracy of the CIE recommendation for the use of 2 degrees and 10 degrees standard CMFs and the field-size dependent CIEPO06 model, in this study, a series of achromatic matching experiments were performed with 2 degrees, 4 degrees, 6 degrees, 8 degrees, and 10 degrees bipartite fields using spectrally narrowband primaries. Using the CIEPO06 model, optimal field sizes were estimated that minimize the chromaticity differences between the spectrally narrowband observer matches and the spectrally broadband achromatic target. It was found that the optimal field size estimated using the CIEPO06 model is close to half the actual bipartite field size in most cases, except for the 2 degrees field. The discrepancy between the 10 degrees bipartite field in Stiles & Burch's experiments and our optimal field size (6.54 degrees) was assumed to be due to different individual color comparison strategies. However, the results of experiments requiring specific observer gaze positions did not support this assumption and the reason for the discrepancy remains unclear. Confirming our earlier results, the primary set (636, 521, 447 nm) was again found to be largely insensitive to changes in CMFs and to provide the most accurate matches under various fields of view. The inter- and intra-observer variability ellipses for 2 degrees matches are larger than those for 10 degrees, consistent with Brown's finding for color discrimination ellipses. The magnitude of the intraobserver variability was similar for all field sizes, except for 2 degrees field size, where matching errors were larger for some primary sets.

关键词： colorimetry color matching functions color science color vision

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Comparison of different monoptic and dichoptic color-matching functions

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color RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2005年第6期30卷 416-426页

作者： de Mattiello, MLF Consejo Nacl Invest Cient & Tecn Lab Invest Visuales Buenos Aires DF Argentina

The objective of this article is to analyze different color matching functions (CMFs) obtained with three (650, 530, and 460 nm) and four primary colors (650, 565, 513, and 460 nm), using both monoptic and dichoptic central vision. This strategy helps to clarify (i) lack of additivity of brilliance;(ii) shift in maximum sensitivity peaks of CMFs when experimental conditions change;(iii) variations in luminance for the same reason;(iv) strong metamerism of the mixtures;and (v) differences of chromatic opponence between monoptic and dichoptic vision. The results obtained reflect two important facts: marked stability of the visual system, which allows the experimental conditions analyzed to be solved with an equal degree of success, and plasticity based especially on the balance of retinal illumination, which was maintained at an average of 40 trolands. The results obtained bring to mind an assertion made by MacAdam to the effect that the law of additivity when applied to luminance is not applied to measurements of brightness. Perceptively, brightness is not additive, and so CMFs should not be considered as significant functions in computing tristimulus values R, G, and B. (c) 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

关键词： color monoptic and dichoptic chromatic vision color matching functions visual system spectral sensitivities

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Spectral matching functions and Ellipse Mappings in Search for More Uniform Chromaticity and color Spaces

Spectral Matching Functions and Ellipse Mappings in Search f...

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12th International Conference on Advanced Concepts for Intelligent Vision Systems

作者： Pahjehfouladgaran, Maryam Kaarna, Arto Lappeenranta Univ Technol Dept Informat Technol Machine Vis & Pattern Recognit Lab FI-53851 Lappeenranta Finland

ISBN: (纸本)9783642176876

In this study, modifying the CIE xyz color matching functions was considered to achieve a more uniform chromaticity space. New color matching functions resulting both from the non-negative tensor factorization and from the optimization were combined with two ellipse mapping approaches. In both approaches the original MacAdam ellipses were mapped to the new space. The first mapping approach depended on the dominant wavelengths and the second one on the spectral information for the five points on the locus of each ellipse. Equal semiaxis lengths (a constant radius) and equal areas for the mapped MacAdam ellipses were the characteristics for the uniformity of the new chromaticity space. The new color matching functions were modelled with the non-uniform rational B-splines and the optimization modified the independent parameters, namely the control points, for NURBS. The cost function was based on the size and shape of the mapped MacAdam ellipses. NURBS were also utilized as a smoothing operator when the color matching functions were directly output from the optimization task. The results indicate that modified color matching functions yield in more uniform chromaticity space. There still remains uncertainty about the ellipse mapping approaches and formulation on the cost function in the optimization tasks.

关键词： Uniform Chromaticity Space color matching functions MacAdam Ellipses Non-uniform Rational B-splines Non-negative Tensor Factorization Smoothing

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