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High concentration factor diffractive microlenses integrated with CMOS single-photon avalanche diode detector arrays for fill-factor improvement

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APPLIED OPTICS 2020年第14期59卷 4488-4498页

作者： Connolly, Peter W. R. Ren, Ximing McCarthy, Aongus Mai, Hanning Villa, Federica Waddie, Andrew J. Taghizadeh, Mohammad R. Tosi, Alberto Zappa, Franco Henderson, Robert K. Buller, Gerald S. Heriot Watt Univ Sch Engn & Phys Sci Inst Photon & Quantum Sci Edinburgh EH14 4AS Midlothian Scotland Politecn Milan Dipartimento Elettron Informaz & Bioingn I-20133 Milan Italy Univ Edinburgh Sch Engn Inst Integrated Micro & Nano Syst Edinburgh EH9 3JL Midlothian Scotland Boise State Univ Micron Sch Mat Sci & Engn Boise ID 83725 USA

Large-format single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays often suffer from low fill-factors-the ratio of the active area to the overall pixel area. The detection efficiency of these detector arrays can be vastly increased with the integration of microlens arrays designed to concentrate incident light onto the active areas and may be refractive or diffractive in nature. The ability of diffractive optical elements (DOEs) to efficiently cover a square or rectangular pixel, combined with their capability of working as fast lenses (i.e., similar to f/3) makes them versatile and practical lens designs for use in sparse photon applications using microscale, large-format detector arrays. Binary-mask-based photolithography was employed to fabricate fast diffractive microlenses for two designs of 32 x 32 SPAD detector arrays, each design having a different pixel pitch and fill-factor. A spectral characterization of the lenses is performed, as well as analysis of performance under different illumination conditions from wide- to narrow-angle illumination (i.e., f/2 to f/22 optics). The performance of the microlenses presented exceeds previous designs in terms of both concentration factor (i.e., increase in light collection capability) and lens speed. Concentration factors greater than 33 x are achieved for focal lengths in the substrate material as short as 190 mu m representing a microlens f-number of 3.8 and providing a focal spot diameter of <4 mu m. These results were achieved while retaining an extremely high degree of performance uniformity across the 1024 devices in each case, which demonstrates the significant benefits to be gained by the implementation of DOEs as part of anintegrated detector system using SPAD arrays with very small active areas. Published by The Optical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

关键词： arrays detector arrays Diffractive optical elements Lens arrays Microlens arrays Positron emission tomography

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Wide-area and omnidirectional optical detector arrays using modular optical elements

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APPLIED OPTICS 2016年第18期55卷 4791-4800页

作者： Kaadan, Asaad Refai, Hazem LoPresti, Peter Univ Oklahoma Sch Elect & Comp Engn Tulsa OK 74135 USA Univ Tulsa Dept Elect Engn Tulsa OK 74104 USA

This paper presents novel, modular optical detector arrays of various shapes and configurations. Recently developed Modular Optical Wireless Elements (MOWE) architecture serves as the basis for large and complex optical detector arrays that can be constructed as geometric shells and provide wide-area even omnidirectional field-of-view (FoV). Programmable optical modules synchronously sample the environment, and then route measurements to the user through a dedicated electrical backbone. The arrays are inexpensive, easy to construct, and can be made with homogeneous/inhomogeneous optical properties. Applications include remote sensing, motion detection, optical navigation, and medical imaging, among others. We present the MOWE detector array concept with a detailed optical analysis and a suggested design methodology, as well as a number of various demonstrations. We also utilize wavelength-diversity of MOWE arrays to demodulate two overlapping signals, showing that many diversity-based algorithms can be conveniently prototyped and implemented. (C) 2016 Optical Society of America

关键词： Charge coupled devices detector arrays Lens arrays Medical imaging Optical elements Remote sensing

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Saturation effects in heterodyne detection with Geiger-mode InGaAs avalanche photodiode detector arrays

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APPLIED OPTICS 2006年第16期45卷 3798-3804页

作者： Luu, Jane X. Jiang, Leaf A. MIT Lincoln Lab Lexington MA 02420 USA

We report, to the best of our knowledge, the first demonstration of heterodyne detection of a glint target using an InGaAs avalanche photodiode detector (APD) array in the Geiger mode. Due to the finite number of pixels, all such photon-counting arrays necessarily suffer from saturation effects. At large photon fluxes, saturation of the APD degrades the Doppler frequency resolution and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We derive analytical expressions for the Doppler resolution and SNR, taking saturation effects into account. The optimal local oscillator power can be obtained numerically from the SNR expression. (c) 2006 Optical Society of America.

关键词： detector arrays Geiger modes Heterodyne detection Near infrared radiation Photon counting Power spectral density

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Optimizing the signal processing of detector arrays, using the window method

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JOURNAL OF OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY 2010年第4期77卷 272-279页

作者： Fedoseev, V. I. Geofizika Kosmos Sci Mfg Enterprise Moscow Russia

Based on earlier results of optimizing spatiotemporal signal processing by optimal nonlinear filtering methods, this article discusses ways to implement spatial processing in optoelectronic systems with detector arrays. It is pointed out that it is expedient to use the window method, and examples are presented of schemes for processing and selecting the window parameters in problems involving estimating the coordinates of the radiation source and its intensity in the detection problem. The analysis is carried out in terms of the Poisson signal model, which can be applied to most cases of the practical use of the detectors. (C) 2010 Optical Society of America.

关键词： detector arrays Nonlinear filtering Nonlinear optical signal processing Radiation detectors Signal processing Temporal processing

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POINT-SOURCE LOCATION USING HEXAGONAL detector arrays

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OPTICAL ENGINEERING 1987年第1期26卷 69-74页

作者： COX, JA Honeywell Systems and Research Center (United States)

For staring sensors, improved performance in the location of point sources can be achieved by use of an array of hexagonal detectors instead of the usual array of square or rectangular detectors. This improvement is demonstrated by calculating the accuracy of the centroid algorithm as a function of signal-to-noise ratio and blur spot size for both types of detector arrays. The probability density function for the centroid random variable is derived and is used to perform all noise analysis. The analysis indicates that the algorithm error is reduced by as much as a factor of 3, the sensitivity to noise is reduced by 17%, the computational load is decreased by 23%, and the data storage requirement is reduced by 22%. The clutter-induced noise, as measured by the clutter equivalent target, is essentially identical for square and hexagonal detectors of the same area.

关键词： detector arrays Sensors Detection and tracking algorithms Error analysis Signal to noise ratio Staring arrays Data storage Sensor performance Target detection

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How the field characteristics of visual receptors compare with those of photoelectric-detector arrays under ultralow illuminance

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JOURNAL OF OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY 2009年第7期76卷 423-429页

作者： Nesterov, V. K. Tibilov, A. S. Shelepin, Yu E. Elar Sci Prod Enterprise St Petersburg Russia Sci Prod Corp SI Vavilov State Opt Inst St Petersburg Russia Russian Acad Sci IP Pavlov Physiol Inst St Petersburg Russia

Based on an analysis of the dark-adaptation regime of the eye, a setup is developed and tested for calculating the illuminances corresponding to the image-perception threshold by an observer equipped with "electr... 详细信息

关键词： detector arrays Illuminance Low light levels Microchannel plates Photon counting Visual receptors

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Three-dimensional imaging with detector arrays on arbitrarily shaped surfaces

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OPTICS LETTERS 2011年第5期36卷 600-602页

作者： Daneshpanah, Mehdi Javidi, Bahram Univ Connecticut Storrs CT 06269 USA

Conventional multiview imaging systems commonly utilize a planar lenslet array and a rigid, flat image sensor in the pickup stage to capture different views of the scene. In this Letter, we remove this constraint by proposing the concept of three-dimensional (3D) imaging with detector arrays that may conform to arbitrarily shaped surfaces or platforms. A nonplanar detector array configuration can be used in combination with a flexible lenslet array to capture different views. The orientation and optical axes of individual image sensing elements could vary. A point-by-point 3D reconstruction algorithm is described and the feasibility of the proposed approach is demonstrated through simulated imagery. (C) 2011 Optical Society of America

关键词： detector arrays Image sensors Imaging systems Reconstruction algorithms Three dimensional imaging Three dimensional reconstruction

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HETERODYNE MIXING EFFICIENCY FOR detector arrays

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APPLIED OPTICS 1987年第17期26卷 3600-3606页

作者： SHAPIRO, JH The author is with MIT Department of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science Cambridge Massachusetts 02139

Monostatic radar equations are reported for laser–transceiver sensors that employ coherent optical detection over a linear-array photodetector. Explicit results are presented illustrating the impact of transmitter an... 详细信息

关键词： Carbon dioxide lasers detector arrays Heterodyne detection Quantum noise Sensors Systems design

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Using confidence intervals to evaluate the focus alignment of spectrograph detector arrays

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APPLIED OPTICS 2017年第18期56卷 5295-5300页

作者： Sawyer, Travis W. Hawkins, Kyle S. Damento, Michael Univ Cambridge Dept Phys Cambridge England Univ Cambridge Canc Res UK Cambridge Inst Cambridge England Airy Opt Inc Tucson AZ 85701 USA Rigaku Analyt Devices Wilmington MA 01887 USA

High-resolution spectrographs extract detailed spectral information of a sample and are frequently used in astronomy, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. These instruments employ dispersive elements such as prisms and diffraction gratings to spatially separate different wavelengths of light, which are then detected by a charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) detector array. Precise alignment along the optical axis (focus position) of the detector array is critical to maximize the instrumental resolution;however, traditional approaches of scanning the detector through focus lack a quantitative measure of precision, limiting the repeatability and relying on one's experience. Here we propose a method to evaluate the focus alignment of spectrograph detector arrays by establishing confidence intervals to measure the alignment precision. We show that propagation of uncertainty can be used to estimate the variance in an alignment, thus providing a quantitative and repeatable means to evaluate the precision and confidence of an alignment. We test the approach by aligning the detector array of a prototype miniature echelle spectrograph. The results indicate that the procedure effectively quantifies alignment precision, enabling one to objectively determine when an alignment has reached an acceptable level. This quantitative approach also provides a foundation for further optimization, including automated alignment. Furthermore, the procedure introduced here can be extended to other alignment techniques that rely on numerically fitting data to a model, providing a general framework for evaluating the precision of alignment methods. (C) 2017 Optical Society of America

关键词： detector arrays Image quality Laser induced breakdown Optical components Optical testing Raman spectroscopy

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Instruments for spacecraft orientation with respect to the Sun based on active-pixel detector arrays

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JOURNAL OF OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY 2017年第12期84卷 805-810页

作者： Pirogov, M. G. Varlamov, V. I. Tsymbal, G. L. Strizhova, N. M. Gebgart, A. Ya. Polkunov, V. A. Vetskus, A. A. NPP Geofiz Kosmos Moscow Russia

We describe two instruments for orientation with respect to the Sun based on active-pixel detector arrays: the 347K static high-precision instrument for orientation with respect to the Sun and the MSD miniature Sun sensor developed for small and miniature spacecraft. We describe the basic characteristics and functional operating modes of these instruments, as well as the results from ground-based and flight tests of the 347K instrument, which confirm that two coordinates of orientation can be determined within a total error of 1'. (c) 2018 Optical Society of America

关键词： Analog to digital converters detector arrays Metrological instrumentation Radiation detectors Sensors Temperature sensors

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