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Applying the efficient coding principle to understand encoding of multisensory and multimodality sensory signals

VISION RESEARCH 2025年 226卷 108489页

作者： Zhaoping, Li Univ Tubingen Max Planck Inst Biol Cybernet Tubingen Germany

Sensory neurons often encode multisensory or multimodal signals. For example, many medial superior temporal (MST) neurons are tuned to heading direction of self-motion based on visual (optic flow) signals and vestibular signals. Middle temporal (MT) cortical neurons are tuned to object depth from signals of two visual modalities: motion parallax and binocular disparity. A MST neuron's preferred heading directions from different senses can be congruent (matched) or opposite from each other. Similarly, the preferred depths of a MT neuron from the two modalities are congruent in some neurons and opposite in other neurons. While the congruent tuning appears natural for cue integration, the functions of the opposite tuning have been puzzling. This paper explains these tunings from the efficient coding principle that sensory encoding extracts as much sensory information as possible while minimizing neural cost. It extends the previous applications of this principle to understand neural receptive fields in retina and the primary visual cortex, particularly multimodal encoding of cone signals or binocular signals. Congruent and opposite sensory signals that excite the congruent and opposite neurons, respectively, are the decorrelated sensory components that provide a general purpose, efficient, representation of sensory inputs before task specific object segmentation and recognition. It can be extended to encoding signals from more than two sensory sources, e.g., from three cone types. This framework also predicts a wider tuning width for the opposite than congruent neurons, neurons that are neither congruent nor opposite, and how neural receptive fields adapt to statistical changes of sensory environments.

关键词： efficient coding Computational modeling Retina V1 MST MT

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efficient coding matters in the organization of the early visual system

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NEURAL NETWORKS 2018年 105卷 218-226页

作者： Kong, Qingqun Han, Jiuqi Zeng, Yi Xu, Bo Chinese Acad Sci Inst Automat Beijing 100190 Peoples R China Univ Chinese Acad Sci Beijing 100049 Peoples R China Acad Mil Med Sci Inst Mil Cognit & Brain Sci Dept Neural Engn & Biol Interdisciplinary Studies Beijing 100850 Peoples R China Chinese Acad Sci Ctr Excellence Brain Sci & Intelligence Technol Shanghai 200031 Peoples R China Chinese Acad Sci Inst Automat Natl Lab Pattern Recognit Beijing 100190 Peoples R China

Individual areas in the brain are organized into a hierarchical network as a result of evolution. Previous work indicated that the receptive fields (RFs) of individual areas have been evolved to favor metabolically efficient neural codes. In this paper, we propose that not only the RFs of individual areas, but also the organization of adjacent neurons and the hierarchical structure composed of these areas have been evolved to support efficient coding. To verify this hypothesis, we introduce a feed-forward three-layer network to simulate the early stages of human visual system. We emphasize that the network is not a purely feed-forward one since it also includes intra-layer connections, which are essential but usually ignored in the literature. Simulation results strongly reveal that (1) the obtained RFs of the simulated retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) or neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and V1 simple neurons are consistent to the neurophysiological data;(2) the responses of closer RGCs are more correlated, and V1 simple neurons with similar orientations prefer to cluster together;(3) the hierarchical organization of the early visual system is beneficial for saving energy, which accords with the requirement of metabolically efficient neural coding in the process of human brain evolution. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

关键词： Early visual stages Hierarchical structure efficient coding Brain-inspired neural networks

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efficient coding and the neural representation of value

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YEAR IN COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE 2012年第1期1251卷 13-32页

作者： Louie, Kenway Glimcher, Paul W. NYU Ctr Neural Sci New York NY 10003 USA NYU Dept Psychol New York NY 10003 USA NYU Dept Econ New York NY 10003 USA

To survive in a dynamic environment, an organism must be able to effectively learn, store, and recall the expected benefits and costs of potential actions. The nature of the valuation and decision processes is thus of fundamental interest to researchers at the intersection of psychology, neuroscience, and economics. Although normative theories of choice have outlined the theoretical structure of these valuations, recent experiments have begun to reveal how value is instantiated in the activity of neurons and neural circuits. Here, we review the various forms of value coding that have been observed in different brain systems and examine the implications of these value representations for both neural circuits and behavior. In particular, we focus on emerging evidence that value coding in a number of brain areas is context dependent, varying as a function of both the current choice set and previously experienced values. Similar contextual modulation occurs widely in the sensory system, and efficient coding principles derived in the sensory domain suggest a new framework for understanding the neural coding of value.

关键词： decision making context dependence reward efficient coding neuroeconomics

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efficient coding correlates with spatial frequency tuning in a model of V1 receptive field organization

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VISUAL NEUROSCIENCE 2009年第1期26卷 21-34页

作者： Wiltschut, Jan Hamker, Fred H. Univ Munster Psychol Inst 2 Otto Creutzfeldt Ctr Cognit & Behav Neurosci D-48149 Munster Germany

efficient coding has been proposed to play an essential role in early visual processing. While several approaches used an objective function to optimize a particular aspect of efficient coding, such as the minimization of mutual information or the maximization of sparseness, we here explore how different estimates of efficient coding in a model with nonlinear dynamics and Hebbian learning determine the similarity of model receptive fields to V1 data with respect to spatial tuning. Our simulation results indicate that most measures of efficient coding correlate with the similarity of model receptive field data to V1 data, that is, optimizing the estimate of efficient coding increases the similarity of the model data to experimental data. However, the degree of the correlation varies with the different estimates of efficient coding, and in particular, the variance in the firing pattern of each cell does not predict a similarity of model and experimental data.

关键词： Network models Natural scenes efficient coding Hebbian learning Visual system

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efficient coding and multiple motions

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VISION RESEARCH 2010年第22期50卷 2190-2199页

作者： Barth, Erhardt Dorr, Michael Vig, Eleonora Pomarjanschi, Laura Mota, Cicero Univ Lubeck Inst Neuro & Bioinformat D-23538 Lubeck Germany Univ Lubeck Grad Sch Comp Med & Life Sci D-23538 Lubeck Germany

Based on the principle of efficient coding we present a theoretical framework for how to categorize the basic types of changes that can occur in a spatio-temporal signal First theoretical results for the problem of estimating multiple transparent motions are reviewed Then confidence measures for the presence of multiple motions are used to derive a basic alphabet of local signal variation that includes motion layers To better understand and visualize this alphabet a representation of motions in the projective plane is used A further practical contribution is an interactive tool that allows generating multiple motion pat terns and displaying them in various apertures In our framework we can explain some well-known results on coherent motion and a few more complex perceptual phenomena such as the 2D-1D entrainment effect but the focus of this paper is on the methods Our working hypothesis is that efficient representations can be obtained by suppressing all the redundancies that arise if the visual input does not change in a particular direction or a set of directions Finally we assume that human eye movements will tend to avoid the redundant parts of the visual input and report results where our framework has been used to obtain very good predictions of eye movements made on overlaid natural videos (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved

关键词： efficient coding Intrinsic dimension Multiple motions Visual subspaces Coherent motion Motion layers Mid level vision Structure tensor Aperture problem Curvature Motion stimuli Eye movements

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Self-calibrating smooth pursuit through active efficient coding

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ROBOTICS AND AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS 2015年 71卷 3-12页

作者： Teuliere, C. Forestier, S. Lonini, L. Zhang, C. Zhao, Y. Shi, B. Triesch, J. Goethe Univ Frankfurt Frankfurt Inst Adv Studies D-60054 Frankfurt Germany Hong Kong Univ Sci & Technol Dept Elect & Comp Engn Hong Kong Hong Kong Peoples R China Univ Blaise Pascal Clermont Univ Inst Pascal Clermont Ferrand France Ecole Normale Super Rennes Bruz France

This paper presents a model for the autonomous learning of smooth pursuit eye movements based on an efficient coding criterion for active perception. This model accounts for the joint development of visual encoding and eye control. Sparse coding models encode the incoming data at two different spatial resolutions and capture the statistics of the input in spatio-temporal basis functions. A reinforcement learner controls eye velocity so as to maximize a reward signal based on the efficiency of the encoding. We consider the embodiment of the approach in the iCub simulator and real robot. Motion perception and smooth pursuit control are not explicitly expressed as tasks for the robot to achieve but emerge as the result of the system's active attempt to efficiently encode its sensory inputs. Experiments demonstrate that the proposed approach is self-calibrating and robust to strong perturbations of the perception-action link. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： Autonomous learning Active perception Smooth pursuit efficient coding Robotics

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Binocular summation and efficient coding

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VISION RESEARCH 2021年 179卷 53-63页

作者： Kingdom, Frederick A. A. Woessner, Philipp Montreal Gen Hosp Dept Ophthalmol McGill Vis Res 1650 Cedar AveRm L11-520 Montreal PQ H3G 1A4 Canada

Two eyes are better than one at detecting a pattern, an advantage termed binocular summation. It is widely believed that binocular summation is mediated by neurons that sum the two eyes' inputs. Here we suggest an alternative model based on a model of binocular interactions proposed by Cohn, Leong & Lasley (Vision Research, 1981, 21, 1017-1023) and further motivated by the efficient coding framework proposed by Li & Atick (Network: Computation in Neural Systems, 1994, 5, 157-174). In the model, termed MAX(S+S-), binocular summation is mediated by channels that compute the sum, S+, and difference, S-, of the two eyes' monocular signals. The S+ and S- signals are assumed to be perturbed by independent noise, have independent gains and contribute independently to detection via the MAX rule. To test the model we measured binocular summation for horizontally-oriented Gabor patches at a range of spatial-frequencies and bandwidths, at both contrast detection threshold and for increment thresholds on binocular pedestals at contrasts set to 10x detection threshold. The model's performance was compared to that of two conventional models of binocular summation, one in which the two eyes' signals remain separate at the decision stage, termed MAX(LR), the other in which the two eye's signals are summed by a single channel, termed B+, with both models incorporating interocular inhibition. The MAX(S+S-) model gave as good a performance as the other two models. Together with the evidence for the involvement of separately gain controlled S+ and S- signals underpinning a wide range of binocular behaviors, we conclude that the MAX(S+S-) model can and should be considered as a viable model for binocular summation.

关键词： Binocular summation Additive summation Probability summation Binocular difference channels Contrast detection Contrast discrimination efficient coding

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Active efficient coding explains the development of binocular vision and its failure in amblyopia

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2020年第11期117卷 6156-6162页

作者： Eckmann, Samuel Klimmasch, Lukas Shi, Bertram E. Triesch, Jochen Frankfurt Inst Adv Studies D-60438 Frankfurt Germany Goethe Univ Dept Comp Sci & Math D-60629 Frankfurt Germany Max Planck Inst Brain Res D-60438 Frankfurt Germany Hong Kong Univ Sci & Technol Dept Elect & Comp Engn Clear Water Bay Hong Kong Peoples R China

The development of vision during the first months of life is an active process that comprises the learning of appropriate neural representations and the learning of accurate eye movements. While it has long been suspected that the two learning processes are coupled, there is still no widely accepted theoretical framework describing this joint development. Here, we propose a computational model of the development of active binocular vision to fill this gap. The model is based on a formulation of the active efficient coding theory, which proposes that eye movements as well as stimulus encoding are jointly adapted to maximize the overall coding efficiency. Under healthy conditions, the model self-calibrates to perform accurate vergence and accommodation eye movements. It exploits disparity cues to deduce the direction of defocus, which leads to coordinated vergence and accommodation responses. In a simulated anisometropic case, where the refraction power of the two eyes differs, an amblyopia-like state develops in which the fovea! region of one eye is suppressed due to inputs from the other eye. After correcting for refractive errors, the model can only reach healthy performance levels if receptive fields are still plastic, in line with findings on a critical period for binocular vision development. Overall, our model offers a unifying conceptual framework for understanding the development of binocular vision.

关键词： efficient coding active perception amblyopia vergence accommodation

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Stereoscopic depth adaptation from binocularly correlated versus anti-correlated noise: Test of an efficient coding theory of stereopsis

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VISION RESEARCH 2020年 166卷 60-71页

作者： Kingdom, Frederick A. A. Yared, Karl-Christopher Hibbard, Paul B. May, Keith A. Montreal Gen Hosp Dept Ophthalmol McGill Vis Res 1650 Cedar AveRm L11-112 Montreal PQ H3G 1A4 Canada Univ Essex Dept Psychol Wivenhoe Pk Colchester CO4 3SQ Essex England

Stereoscopic, or "3D" vision in humans is mediated by neurons sensitive to the disparities in the positions of objects in the two eyes' views. A disparity-sensitive neuron is typically characterized by its responses to left- and right-eye monocular signals, S-L and S-R, respectively. However, it can alternatively be characterized by sensitivity to the sum of the two eyes' inputs, S+ = S-L + S-R, and the difference, S- = S-L - S-R. Li and Atick's theory of efficient binocular encoding proposes that the S+ and S- signals can be separately weighted to maximize the efficiency with which binocular information is encoded. This adaptation changes each neuron's sensitivity and preferred binocular disparity, resulting in predicted effects on the perceived stereoscopic depth of objects. To test these predictions, we measured the apparent depth of a random-dot stereogram with an 'in-front' target following adaptation to binocularly correlated or anti-correlated horizontally-oriented grating stimuli, which reduce sensitivity to the S+ and S- signals, respectively, but which contain no conventional stereo-depth signals. The anti-correlated noise adaptation made the target appear relatively closer to the background than the correlated noise adaptation, with differences of up to 60%. We show how this finding can be accommodated by a standard model of binocular disparity processing, modified to incorporate the binocular adaptation suggested by Li and Atick's theory.

关键词： Stereopsis Adaptation efficient coding Binocular summing channel Binocular differencing channel

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An efficient coding approach to the debate on grounded cognition

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SYNTHESE 2018年第12期195卷 5245-5269页

作者： Wajnerman Paz, Abel Univ Buenos Aires Fac Filosofia & Letras Inst Filosofia Off 4314th FloorPuan 480 RA-1406 Buenos Aires Capital Federal Argentina

The debate between the amodal and the grounded views of cognition seems to be stuck. Their only substantial disagreement is about the vehicle or format of concepts. Amodal theorists reject the grounded claim that concepts are couched in the same modality-specific format as representations in sensory systems. The problem is that there is no clear characterization of (modal or amodal) format or its neural correlate. In order to make the disagreement empirically meaningful and move forward in the discussion we need a neurocognitive criterion for representational format. I argue that efficient coding models in computational neuroscience can be used to characterize modal codes: These are codes which satisfy special informational demands imposed by sensory tasks. Additionally, I examine recent studies on neural coding and argue that although they do not provide conclusive evidence for either the grounded or the amodal views, they can be used to determine what predictions these approaches can make and what experimental and theoretical developments would be required to settle the debate.

关键词： Concepts Format Grounded cognition efficient coding

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