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PERFORMAnCE ISSUES In C-LAnGUAGE FAULT-TOLERAnT SOFTWARE

COMPUTER LAnGUAGES 1989年第1期14卷 1-9页

作者： COLEMAn, DM LEACH, RJ Department of Systems and Computer Science School of Engineering Howard University Washington DC 20059 U.S.A.

An experiment is described for the determination of the overhead associated with n-version programming, a technique for achieving software reliability. Results are presented for the performance as a function of the number of versions in the voting process. Overhead is defined as additional algorithm execution time as required for the management of the voting process at each algorithm checkpoint. The experiment is conducted in a Unix C environment.

关键词： C UnIX Fault-tolerance n-version programming Multi-version programming concurrent programming Software reliability

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An EMPIRICAL-COMPARISOn OF SOFTWARE FAULT TOLERAnCE AnD FAULT ELIMInATIOn

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On SOFTWARE EnGInEERInG 1991年第2期17卷 173-182页

作者： SHIMEALL, TJ LEVESOn, nG UNIV CALIF IRVINE DEPT INFORMAT & COMP SCIIRVINECA 92717

Reliability is an important concern in the development of software for modern systems. The authors have performed a study that compares two major approaches to the improvement of software-software fault elimination and software fault tolerance-by examination of the fault detection (and tolerance where applicable) of five techniques: run-time assertions, multiversion voting, functional testing augmented by structural testing, code reading by stepwise abstraction, and static data-flow analysis. The study focused on characterizing the sets of faults detected by the techniques and on characterizing the relationships between these sets of faults. Two categories of questions were investigated: 1) comparisons between fault-elimination and fault-tolerance techniques and 2) comparisons among various testing techniques. The results provide information useful for making decisions about the allocation of project resources, point out strengths and weaknesses of the techniques studied, and suggest directions for future research.

关键词： ASSERTIOnS BACK-TO-BACK TESTInG CODE READInG EVALUATIOn OF SOFTWARE METHODOLOGIES FAULT ELIMInATIOn FAULT TOLERAnCE n-version programming SOFTWARE EXPERIMEnTS STATIC AnALYSIS TESTInG

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Stochastic modelling and simulation approaches to analysing enhanced fault tolerance on service-based software systems

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SOFTWARE TESTInG VERIFICATIOn & RELIABILITY 2016年第4期26卷 276-293页

作者： Peng, Kuan-Li Huang, Chin-Yu Natl Tsing Hua Univ Dept Comp Sci Hsinchu Taiwan

Presently, service-based software systems ( SBSSs) have been heavily deployed to fulfil the functionalities of cloud computing and are widely used in many other application fields. Additionally, maintaining functionality and quality of service levels becomes increasingly important for SBSSs;this is because system operational failures may cause great financial loss to an organization. Fault tolerance ( FT) is usually used to provide continuous and reliable system service delivery when failures occur. However, the reliability and performance of FT should be carefully analysed because of the overhead of invoking redundant services. It is also noted that the single point of failure on the FT adjudicators as well as the failure correlation also hamper the benefits of FT in SBSSs. To address these problems, this paper proposes two approaches, the stochastic modelling approach and the simulation approach, for analysing the reliability and performance of generalized FT designs. The first approach is suitable for quick analysis at an early design stage, while the second approach is built on top of the ns-3 simulator and could be well adapted to incorporate varied uncertainty models in the SBSS environments Extensive experiments and analyses uncover some characteristics that could be useful for SBSS engineers. Copyright (C) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

关键词： service-based software systems software reliability fault tolerance recovery block n-version programming reliability stochastic process ns-3

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Experimental analysis of specification language diversity impact on nPP software diversity

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JOURnAL OF SYSTEMS AnD SOFTWARE 2002年第2期62卷 111-122页

作者： Yoo, CS Seong, PH Korea Adv Inst Sci & Technol Dept Nucl Engn Yusong Gu Taejon 305701 South Korea

in order to increase computer system reliability, software fault tolerance methods have been adopted to some safety critical systems including nuclear power plants (nPPs). Prevention of software common mode failures is a crucial problem in software fault tolerance, but an effective method to solve this problem has not yet been found. Our research, to find an effective method to prevent software common mode failure s experimentally examined the impact of specification language diversity on nPP software diversity. Three specification languages were used to compose three requirements specifications, and programmers made 12 product codes from the specifications. From the product codes analysis using fault diversity criteria, we concluded that a diverse specification language method would enhance program diversity through diversification of requirements specification imperfections. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： software diversity software fault-tolerance specification language n-version programming software common mode failures nPP software

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EVALUATIOn AnD COMPARISOn OF FAULT-TOLERAnT SOFTWARE TECHnIQUES

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On RELIABILITY 1993年第2期42卷 190-204页

作者： HUDAK, J SUH, BH SIEWIOREK, D SEGALL, Z CARNEGIE MELLON UNIV DEPT ELECT & COMP ENGNPITTSBURGHPA 15213

Various fault-tolerant software techniques have been proposed in order to meet the reliability requirements of critical systems. This paper evaluates 4 implementations of fault-tolerant software techniques with respect to hardware and design faults. Project participants were divided into 4 groups, each of which developed fault-tolerant software based on a common specification. Each group applied one of the following techniques: n-version programming, recovery block, concurrent error-detection, and algorithm-based fault tolerance. Independent testing and modeling groups within the project then thoroughly analyzed the fault-tolerant software. Using fault-injection tools, the testing group subjected the fault-tolerant software to simulated design and hardware faults. Simulated design-faults included control flow, array boundary, computational, and post/pre increment/decrement software mutations. Simulated hardware-faults included code and data corruption. Data collected from the fault-injection experiment were then mapped into a discrete-time Markov model developed by the modeling group. Based on this model, the effectiveness of each implementation of the fault-tolerant software technique with respect to availability, correctness, and time to failure given an error, is contrasted with measured data. Finally, the model is analyzed with respect to additional figures of merit identified during the modeling process, and the techniques are ranked using an application taxonomy.

关键词： FAULT-TOLERAnT SOFTWARE n-version programming RECOVERY BLOCK COnCURREnT ERROR-DETECTIOn ALGORITHM-BASED FAULT TOLERAnCE MARKOV MODEL FAULT-InJECTIOn TESTInG

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THE USE OF SELF CHECKS AnD VOTInG In SOFTWARE ERROR-DETECTIOn - An EMPIRICAL-STUDY

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On SOFTWARE EnGInEERInG 1990年第4期16卷 432-443页

作者： LEVESOn, nG CHA, SS KnIGHT, JC SHIMEALL, TJ UNIV VIRGINIA DEPT COMP SCICHARLOTTESVILLEVA 22903 USN POSTGRAD SCHDEPT COMP SCIMONTEREYCA 93943

This paper presents the results of an empirical study of software error detection using self checks and n-version voting. A total of 24 graduate students in computer science at the University of Vir- ginia and the University of California, Irvine, were hired as program- mers. Working independently, each first prepared a set of self checks using just the requirements specification of an aerospace application, and then each added self checks to an existing implementation of that specification. The modified programs were executed to measure the er- ror-detection performance of the checks and to compare this with er- ror detection using simple voting among multiple versions. The goal of this study w"as to learn more about the effectiveness of such checks. The analysis of the checks revealed that there are great differences in the ability of individual programmers to design effective checks. We found that some checks that might have been effective failed to detect an error because they were badly placed, and there were nu- merous instances of checks signaling nonexistent errors. In general, specification-based checks alone were not as effective as combining them with code-based checks. Using self checks, faults were identified that had not been detected previously by voting 28 versions of the program over a million randomly-generated inputs. This appeared to result from the fact that the self checks could examine the internal state of the executing program whereas voting examines only final results of com- putations. If internal states had to be identical in n-version voting sys- tems, then there would be no reason to write multiple versions. The programs were executed on 100 000 new randomly-generated input cases in order to compare error detection by self checks and by 2-version and 3-version voting. Both self checks and voting techniques led to the identification of the same number of faults for this input, although the identified faults were not the same. Furthermore

关键词： Acceptance tests n-version programming Error detection Software fault tolerance Assertions software reliability.

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AnALYSIS OF FAULTS In An n-version SOFTWARE EXPERIMEnT

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On SOFTWARE EnGInEERInG 1990年第2期16卷 238-247页

作者： BRILLIAnT, SS KnIGHT, JC LEVESOn, nG UNIV VIRGINIA DEPT COMP SCICHARLOTTESVILLEVA 22903 UNIV CALIF IRVINE DEPT COMP SCIIRVINECA 92717

We have conducted a large-scale experiment in n-version programming. A total of 27 versions of a program were prepared independently from the same specification at two universities. The results of executing the versions revealed that the versions were individually extremely reliable but that the number of input cases in which more than one failed was substantially more than would be expected if they were statistically independent. After the versions had been executed, the failures of each version were examined and the associated faults located. In this paper we pre- sent an analysis of these faults. Our goal in undertaking this analysis was to understand better the nature of the faults. We found that in some cases the programmers made equivalent logical errors, indicating that some parts of the problem were simply more difficult than others. We also found cases in which apparently different logical errors yielded faults that caused statistically correlated failures, indicating that there are special cases in the input space that present difficulty in various parts of the solution. A formal model is presented to explain this phenomenon. It appears that minor differences in the software development environment, such as the use of different programming languages for the different versions, would not have a major impact in reducing the incidence of faults that cause correlated failures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

关键词： Design diversity fault-tolerant software multiversion programming n-version programming software reliability

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RELIABILITY OF VOTInG In FAULT-TOLERAnT SOFTWARE SYSTEMS FOR SMALL OUTPUT-SPACES

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On RELIABILITY 1990年第5期39卷 524-534页

作者： MCALLISTER, DF SUn, CE VOUK, MA North Carolina State University Raleigh USA

Under a voting strategy in a fault-tolerant software system there is a difference between correctness and agreement. An independent n-version programming reliability model which distinguishes between correctness and agreement is proposed for treating small output spaces. We use an alternative voting strategy, viz, consensus voting, to treat cases when there can be agreement among incorrect outputs, a case which can occur with small output spaces. The consensus voting strategy automatically adapts the voting to various version reliability and output-space cardinality characteristics. The majority-voting strategy provides reliability which is a lower bound, and the 2-out-of-n voting strategy provides reliability which is an upper bound, on the reliability by consensus voting. The reciprocal of the cardinality-of-output-space is a lower bound on the average reliability of fault-tolerant system versions below which the system reliability begins to deteriorate as more versions are added.

关键词： VOTInG n-version programming SYSTEM RELIABILITY SOFTWARE FAULT-TOLERAnCE

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Software mutational robustness

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GEnETIC programming AnD EVOLVABLE MACHInES 2014年第3期15卷 281-312页

作者： Schulte, Eric Fry, Zachary P. Fast, Ethan Weimer, Westley Forrest, Stephanie Univ New Mexico Dept Comp Sci Albuquerque NM 87131 USA Univ Virginia Dept Comp Sci Charlottesville VA 22903 USA Stanford Univ Dept Comp Sci Palo Alto CA 94304 USA Santa Fe Inst Santa Fe NM 87501 USA

neutral landscapes and mutational robustness are believed to be important enablers of evolvability in biology. We apply these concepts to software, defining mutational robustness to be the fraction of random mutations to program code that leave a program's behavior unchanged. Test cases are used to measure program behavior and mutation operators are taken from earlier work on genetic programming. Although software is often viewed as brittle, with small changes leading to catastrophic changes in behavior, our results show surprising robustness in the face of random software mutations. The paper describes empirical studies of the mutational robustness of 22 programs, including 14 production software projects, the Siemens benchmarks, and four specially constructed programs. We find that over 30 % of random mutations are neutral with respect to their test suite. The results hold across all classes of programs, for mutations at both the source code and assembly instruction levels, across various programming languages, and bear only a limited relation to test suite coverage. We conclude that mutational robustness is an inherent property of software, and that neutral variants (i.e., those that pass the test suite) often fulfill the program's original purpose or specification. Based on these results, we conjecture that neutral mutations can be leveraged as a mechanism for generating software diversity. We demonstrate this idea by generating a population of neutral program variants and showing that the variants automatically repair latent bugs. neutral landscapes also provide a partial explanation for recent results that use evolutionary computation to automatically repair software bugs.

关键词： Mutational robustness Genetic programming Mutation testing Proactive diversity n-version programming neutral landscapes

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A COVERAGE AnALYSIS TOOL FOR THE EFFECTIVEnESS OF SOFTWARE TESTInG

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IEEE TRAnSACTIOnS On RELIABILITY 1994年第4期43卷 527-535页

作者： LYU, MR HORGAn, JR LOnDOn, S Bell Communications Research Inc. Morristown USA

This paper describes the software testing and analysis tool, ''ATAC (Automatic Test Analysis for C)'', developed as a research instrument at Bellcore to measure the effectiveness of testing data. It is also a tool to facilitate the design and evaluation of test cases during software development. To demonstrate the capability and applicability of ATAC, we obtained 12 program versions of a critical industrial application developed in a recent university/industry n-version Software project, and used ATAC to analyze and compare coverage of the testing on the program versions. Preliminary results from this investigation show that ATAC is a powerful testing tool to provide testing metrics and quality control guidance for the certification of high quality software components or systems. In using ATAC to derive high quality test data, we assume that a good test has a high data-flow coverage score. This hypothesis requires that we show that good data-flow testing implies good software, viz, software with higher reliability, One would hope, for example, that code tested to 85% c-uses coverage would have a lower field-failure rate than similar code tested to 20% c-uses coverage. The establishment of a correlation between good data-flow testing and a low (or zero) rate of field failures is the ultimate and critical test of the usefulness of data-flow coverage testing. We demonstrated by ATAC that the 12 program versions obtained from the U. of Iowa and Rockwell nVS project (a project that has been subjected to a stringent design, implementation, and testing procedure) had very high testing coverage scores of blocks, decisions, c-uses, and p-uses. Results from the field testing (in which only one fault was found) confirmed this belief. The ultimate question that we hope ATAC can help us ans,ver is a typical question for all software reliability engineers: ''When is a program considered acceptable?'' Software reliability analysts have proposed several models to answer this questi

关键词： DATA-FLOW TESTInG TEST EFFECTIVEnESS TESTInG COVERAGE TOOL SOFTWARE METRIC n-version programming

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