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Facial expression coding in children and adolescents with autism: Reduced adaptability but intact norm-based coding

BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2018年第2期109卷 204-218页

作者： Rhodes, Gillian Burton, Nichola Jeffery, Linda Read, Ainsley Taylor, Libby Ewing, Louise Univ Western Australia ARC Ctr Excellence Cognit & Its Disorders Sch Psychol Crawley WA Australia Univ East Anglia Sch Psychol Norwich Res Pk Norwich NR4 7TJ Norfolk England

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can have difficulty recognizing emotional expressions. Here, we asked whether the underlying perceptual coding of expression is disrupted. Typical individuals code expression relative to a perceptual (average) norm that is continuously updated by experience. This adaptability of face-coding mechanisms has been linked to performance on various face tasks. We used an adaptation aftereffect paradigm to characterize expression coding in children and adolescents with autism. We asked whether face expression coding is less adaptable in autism and whether there is any fundamental disruption of norm-based coding. If expression coding is norm-based, then the face aftereffects should increase with adaptor expression strength (distance from the average expression). We observed this pattern in both autistic and typically developing participants, suggesting that norm-based coding is fundamentally intact in autism. Critically, however, expression aftereffects were reduced in the autism group, indicating that expression-coding mechanisms are less readily tuned by experience. Reduced adaptability has also been reported for coding of face identity and gaze direction. Thus, there appears to be a pervasive lack of adaptability in face-coding mechanisms in autism, which could contribute to face processing and broader social difficulties in the disorder.

关键词： autism expression perception face processing norm-based coding

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Reduced adaptability, but no fundamental disruption, of norm-based face-coding mechanisms in cognitively able children and adolescents with autism

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NEUROPSYCHOLOGIA 2014年第1期62卷 262-268页

作者： Rhodes, Gillian Ewing, Louise Jeffery, Linda Avard, Eleni Taylor, Libby Univ Western Australia Sch Psychol ARC Ctr Excellence Cognit & Its Disorders Crawley WA 6009 Australia

Faces are adaptively coded relative to visual norms that are updated by experience. This coding is compromised in autism and the broader autism phenotype, suggesting that atypical adaptive coding of faces may be an endophenotype for autism. Here we investigate the nature of this atypicality, asking whether adaptive face-coding mechanisms are fundamentally altered, or simply less responsive to experience, in autism. We measured adaptive coding, using face identity aftereffects, in cognitively able children and adolescents with autism and neurotypical age- and ability-matched participants. We asked whether these aftereffects increase with adaptor identity strength as in neurotypical populations, or whether they show a different pattern indicating a more fundamental alteration in face-coding mechanisms. As expected, face identity aftereffects were reduced in the autism group, but they nevertheless increased with adaptor strength, like those of our neurotypical participants, consistent with norm-based coding of face identity. Moreover, their aftereffects correlated positively with face recognition ability, consistent with an intact functional role for adaptive coding in face recognition ability. We conclude that adaptive norm-based face-coding mechanisms are basically intact in autism, but are less readily calibrated by experience. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

关键词： Autism Face recognition Face identity aftereffects Adaptive coding norm-based coding

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Four year-olds use norm-based coding for face identity

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COGNITION 2013年第2期127卷 258-263页

作者： Jeffery, Linda Read, Ainsley Rhodes, Gillian Univ Western Australia Sch Psychol ARC Ctr Excellence Cognit & Its Disorders Crawley WA 6009 Australia

norm-based coding, in which faces are coded as deviations from an average face, is an efficient way of coding visual patterns that share a common structure and must be distinguished by subtle variations that define individuals. Adults and school-aged children use norm-based coding for face identity but it is not yet known if pre-school aged children also use norm-based coding. We reasoned that the transition to school could be critical in developing a norm-based system because school places new demands on children's face identification skills and substantially increases experience with faces. Consistent with this view, face identification performance improves steeply between ages 4 and 7. We used face identity aftereffects to test whether norm-based coding emerges between these ages. We found that 4 year-old children, like adults, showed larger face identity aftereffects for adaptors far from the average than for adaptors closer to the average, consistent with use of norm-based coding. We conclude that experience prior to age 4 is sufficient to develop a norm-based face-space and that failure to use norm-based coding cannot explain 4 year-old children's poor face identification skills. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： Face perception Development norm-based coding Aftereffects Face-space

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Asymmetric neural responses for facial expressions and anti-expressions

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NEUROPSYCHOLOGIA 2018年第0期119卷 405-416页

作者： Gwinn, O. Scott Matera, Courtney N. O'Neil, Sean F. Webster, Michael A. Univ Nevada Dept Psychol 1664 N Virginia St Reno NV 89557 USA Flinders Univ S Australia Sch Psychol Sturt Rd Adelaide SA 5042 Australia

Face recognition requires identifying both the invariant characteristics that distinguish one individual from another and the variations within the individual that correspond to emotional expressions. Both have been postulated to be represented via a norm-based code, in which identity or expression are represented as deviations from an average or neutral prototype. We used Fast Periodic Visual Stimulation (FPVS) with electro-encephalography (EEG) to compare neural responses for neutral faces, expressions and anti-expressions. Anti expressions are created by projecting an expression (e.g. a happy face) through the neutral face to form the opposite facial shape (anti-happy). Thus expressions and anti-expressions differ from the norm by the same "configural" amount and thus have equivalent but opposite status with regard to their shape, but differ in their ecological validity. We examined whether neural responses to these complementary stimulus pairs were equivalent or asymmetric, and also tested for norm-based coding by comparing whether stronger responses are elicited by expressions and anti-expressions than neutral faces. Observers viewed 20 s sequences of 6 Hz alternations of neutral faces and expressions, neutral faces and anti-expressions, and expressions and anti-expressions. Responses were analyzed in the frequency domain. Significant responses at half the frequency of the presentation rate (3 Hz), indicating asymmetries in responses, were observed for all conditions. Inversion of the images reduced the size of this signal, indicating these asymmetries are not solely due to differences in the low-level properties of the images. While our results do not preclude a norm-based code for expressions, similar to identity, this representation (as measured by the FPVS EEG responses) may also include components sensitive to which configural distortions form meaningful expressions.

关键词： Facial expressions norm-based coding EEG FPVS

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A "voice patch" system in the primate brain for processing vocal information?

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HEARING RESEARCH 2018年 366卷 65-74页

作者： Belin, Pascal Bodin, Clementine Aglieri, Virginia CNRS Inst Neurosci Timone UMR 7289 Marseille France Aix Marseille Univ Marseille France Univ Montreal Dept Psychol Montreal PQ Canada

We review behavioural and neural evidence for the processing of information contained in conspecific vocalizations (CVs) in three primate species: humans, macaques and marmosets. We focus on abilities that are present and ecologically relevant in all three species: the detection and sensitivity to CVs;and the processing of identity cues in CVs. Current evidence, although fragmentary, supports the notion of a "voice patch system" in the primate brain analogous to the face patch system of visual cortex: a series of discrete, interconnected cortical areas supporting increasingly abstract representations of the vocal input. A central question concerns the degree to which the voice patch system is conserved in evolution. We outline challenges that arise and suggesting potential avenues for comparing the organization of the voice patch system across primate brains. (C) 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

关键词： Voice Conspecific vocalization Category-selective cortex norm-based coding Speaker identity fMRI Comparative approach

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Adaptive coding and Face Recognition

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CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2017年第3期26卷 218-224页

作者： Rhodes, Gillian Univ Western Australia Sch Psychol ARC Ctr Excellence Cognit & Its Disorders Crawley WA 6009 Australia

Face adaptation generates striking face aftereffects, but is this adaptation useful? The answer appears to be yes, with several lines of evidence suggesting that it contributes to our face-recognition ability. Adaptation to face identity is reduced in a variety of clinical populations with impaired face recognition. In addition, individual differences in face adaptation are linked to face-recognition ability in typical adults. People who adapt more readily to new faces are better at recognizing faces. This link between adaptation and recognition holds for both identity and expression recognition. Adaptation updates face norms, which represent the typical or average properties of the faces we experience. By using these norms to code how faces differ from average, the visual system can make explicit the distinctive information that we need to recognize faces. Thus, adaptive norm-based coding may help us to discriminate and recognize faces despite their similarity as visual patterns.

关键词： face recognition face adaptation norm-based coding opponent coding face aftereffects

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The development of norm-based coding and race-specific face prototypes: An examination of 5-and 8-year-olds' face space

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JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2011年第2期108卷 338-357页

作者： Short, Lindsey A. Hatry, Alexandra J. Mondloch, Catherine J. Brock Univ Dept Psychol St Catharines ON L2S 3A1 Canada

The current research investigated the organization of children's face space by examining whether 5- and 8-year-olds show race-contingent aftereffects. Participants read a storybook in which Caucasian and Chinese children's faces were distorted in opposite directions. Before and after adaptation, participants judged the normality/attractiveness of expanded, compressed, and undistorted Caucasian and Chinese faces. The method was validated with adults and then refined to test 8- and 5-year-olds. The 5-year-olds were also tested in a simple aftereffects paradigm. The current research provides the first evidence for simple attractiveness aftereffects in 5-year-olds and for race-contingent aftereffects in both 5- and 8-year-olds. Evidence that adults and 5-year-olds may possess only a weak prototype for Chinese children's faces suggests that Caucasian adults' prototype for Chinese adult faces does not generalize to child faces and that children's face space undergoes a period of increasing differentiation between 5 and 8 years of age. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： Face perception Perceptual development Attractiveness aftereffects norm-based coding Category-specific prototypes Other-race faces

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Adults with autism spectrum disorder show evidence of figural aftereffects with male and female faces

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VISION RESEARCH 2015年第PartA期115卷 104-112页

作者： Walsh, Jennifer A. Vida, Mark D. Morrisey, Marcus Neil Rutherford, M. D. McMaster Univ Dept Psychol Neurosci & Behav Hamilton ON L8S 4L8 Canada

The norm-based coding model of face perception posits that face perception involves an implicit comparison of observed faces to a representation of an average face (prototype) that is shaped by experience. Using some methods, observers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have shown atypical face perception, but other methods suggest preserved face perception. Here, we used a figural aftereffects paradigm to test whether adults with ASD showed evidence of norm-based coding of faces, and whether they encode separate prototypes for male and female faces, as typical observers do. Following prolonged exposure to distorted faces that differ from their stored prototype, neurotypical adults show aftereffects: their prototype shifts in the direction of the adapting face. We measured aftereffects following adaptation to one distorted gender. There were no significant group differences in the size or direction of the aftereffects;both groups showed sex-selective aftereffects after adapting to expanded female faces but showed aftereffects for both sexes after adapting to contracted face of either sex, demonstrating that adults with and without ASD show evidence of partially dissociable male and female face prototypes. This is the first study to examine sex-selective prototypes using figural aftereffects in adults with ASD and replicates the findings of previous studies examining aftereffects in adults with ASD. The results contrast with studies reporting diminished adaptation in children with ASD. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

关键词： Autism spectrum disorder Face processing Face adaptation norm-based coding

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Attractiveness judgments and discrimination of mommies and grandmas: Perceptual tuning for young adult faces

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JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2015年 129卷 1-11页

作者： Short, Lindsey A. Mondloch, Catherine J. Hackland, Anne T. Brock Univ Dept Psychol St Catharines ON L2S 3A1 Canada Redeemer Univ Coll Dept Psychol Ancaster ON L9K 1J4 Canada

Adults are more accurate in detecting deviations from normality in young adult faces than in older adult faces despite exhibiting comparable accuracy in discriminating both face ages. This deficit in judging the normality of older faces may be due to reliance on a face space optimized for the dimensions of young adult faces, perhaps because of early and continuous experience with young adult faces. Here we examined the emergence of this young adult face bias by testing 3- and 7-year-old children on a child-friendly version of the task used to test adults. In an attractiveness judgment task, children viewed young and older adult face pairs;each pair consisted of an unaltered face and a distorted face of the same identity. Children pointed to the prettiest face, which served as a measure of their sensitivity to the dimensions on which faces vary relative to a norm. To examine whether biases in the attractiveness task were specific to deficits in referencing a norm or extended to impaired discrimination, we tested children on a simultaneous match-to-sample task with the same stimuli. Both age groups were more accurate in judging the attractiveness of young faces relative to older faces;however, unlike adults, the young adult face bias extended to the match-to-sample task. These results suggest that by 3 years of age, children's perceptual system is more finely tuned for young adult faces than for older adult faces, which may support past findings of superior recognition for young adult faces. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： Young adult face bias norm-based coding Discrimination Face space Attractiveness judgments Perceptual tuning

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A Bayesian approach to person perception

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CONSCIOUSNESS AND COGNITION 2015年 36卷 406-413页

作者： Clifford, C. W. G. Mareschal, I. Otsuka, Y. Watson, T. L. UNSW Australia Sch Psychol Sydney NSW Australia Queen Mary Univ London Sch Biol & Chem Sci Psychol London England Ehime Univ Fac Law & Letters Matsuyama Ehime Japan Univ Western Sydney Sch Social Sci & Psychol Bankstown NSW Australia

Here we propose a Bayesian approach to person perception, outlining the theoretical position and a methodological framework for testing the predictions experimentally. We use the term person perception to refer not only to the perception of others' personal attributes such as age and sex but also to the perception of social signals such as direction of gaze and emotional expression. The Bayesian approach provides a formal description of the way in which our perception combines current sensory evidence with prior expectations about the structure of the environment. Such expectations can lead to unconscious biases in our perception that are particularly evident when sensory evidence is uncertain. We illustrate the ideas with reference to our recent studies on gaze perception which show that people have a bias to perceive the gaze of others as directed towards themselves. We also describe a potential application to the study of the perception of a person's sex, in which a bias towards perceiving males is typically observed. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： Social vision Male bias Gaze perception Adaptation norm-based coding Perceptual inference

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