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Reversible data hiding in encrypted images based on pixel-level masked autoencoder and polar code

SIGNAL PROCESSING 2025年 226卷

作者： Cheng, Zhangpei Chen, Kaimeng Guan, Qingxiao Jimei Univ Coll Comp Engn Xiamen 361021 Peoples R China Guangzhou Univ Sch Comp Sci & Cyber Engn Guangzhou 510006 Peoples R China

In the study of vacating-room-after-encryption reversible data hiding in encrypted images (VRAE RDHEI), pixel prediction is an important mechanism to achieve reversibility, which has a crucial impact on the capacity and fidelity. In this paper, we propose a novel pixel-level masked autoencoders (PLMAE) as a high-performance pixel predictor for RDHEI. Unlike the original masked autoencoders (MAE), PLMAE focuses on pixel-level reconstruction rather than semantic patch-level reconstruction. The purpose of PLMAE is to spare more carrier pixels while maintaining relatively high prediction accuracy, thereby improving the RDHEI capacity. Based on PLMAE, a novel RDHEI method is proposed. In the proposed method, the data hider encodes the secret data using a polar code and then embeds the encoded data. After the image is decrypted, the receiver considers the carrier pixels as masked pixels, predicts the original states of the carrier pixels using PLMAE to extract the secret data, and then decodes the secret data and recovers the image based on the decoding results. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method in this paper can achieve better performance than the existing methods.

关键词： Reversible data hiding Image encryption Masked autoencoder polar code

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Physical Layer Cyber Resilience Oriented Dynamic Secure polar code

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IEEE ACCESS 2025年 13卷 35609-35620页

作者： Yao, Sifan Dai, Yu Han, Gangtao Tang, Zhiqing Zhang, Dalong Zhengzhou Univ Sch Cyber Sci & Engn Zhengzhou 450001 Peoples R China Zhengzhou Univ Sch Elect & Informat Engn Zhengzhou 450001 Peoples R China Songshan Lab Zhengzhou 450046 Peoples R China

Cyber resilience has attracted worldwide attention. Security and reliability of information transmission are considered to be two key characteristics from the perspective of physical layer cyber resilience. Consequently, a dynamic secure polar code is proposed in this paper to improve the physical layer resilience of the non-degraded channels, in which a shared key is firstly used as a seed to produce a pseudo-random sequence that is further used to generate a dynamic generator matrix to obfuscate the coding structure. Then, a small amount of random column vectors are inserted into the generator matrix to destroy the systematicness of the code. Finally, the hash value of the key is used as frozen bits to avoid the leaking of the key. Confidentiality analysis and computer simulations were carried out for the proposed scheme. The results show that the proposed scheme has high security against cryptanalysis attacks. Meanwhile the eavesdropper's bit error rate is kept above 0.435 in non-degraded channel scenarios, and the reliability is almost the same with that of the original polar code. Furthermore, the frame error rate of the proposed scheme is about 1/10 of the existing schemes in low signal-to-noise ratio regimes.

关键词： polar codes Generators Encoding Security Decoding Reliability Resilience codes Vectors Encryption Cyber resilience physical layer encryption polar code non-degraded channel

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polar code-based secure channel coding scheme with small key size

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IET COMMUNICATIONS 2017年第15期11卷 2357-2361页

作者： Hooshmand, Reza Aref, Mohammad Reza Shahid Sattari Aeronaut Univ Sci & Technol Dept Elect Engn Tehran Iran Sharif Univ Technol Dept Elect Engn Tehran Iran

In this study, the secret polar encoding and secret successive cancellation decoding algorithms are introduced;with these algorithms, secure and efficient communication can be enhanced between the honest parties. Also, the key size of the proposed polar code-based secure channel coding system is reduced significantly compared to the existing systems. To decrease the key size, the authors employ the three following methods: (i) a new approach is proposed to save some bit-channel indices instead of saving the generator matrix of the used polar code;(ii) the permutation and scrambling matrices are not used in this scheme;and (iii) by the help of the properties of polar codes, it does not need to save any vector as part of secret key set to generate an error vector. Moreover, the security analyses demonstrate that this system is resistant against conventional attacks on symmetric-key code-based cryptosystems. It means that reducing the key size of the proposed polar code-based scheme does not affect its security level.

关键词： channel coding matrix algebra cryptography polar code secure channel coding scheme small key size secret polar encoding secret successive cancellation decoding algorithms bit-channel indices generator matrix scrambling matrices symmetric-key code cryptosystems

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Secured polar code derived from random hopped frozen-bits

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WIRELESS NETWORKS 2023年第1期29卷 423-435页

作者： Moussa, Karim H. Shaaban, Shawki El-Sakka, Ahmed H. Xian Jiaotong Liverpool Univ Sch Internet Things Suzhou 215123 Peoples R China Alexandria Univ Elect & Commun Dept Fac Engn Alexandria Egypt

The polar code is a unique coding approach that can achieve Shannon's capacity in modern communication systems' discrete memory-less channels with superior reliability, but it is not secure enough under modern attacks for such systems. This study aims to offer a comprehensive secured polar coding scheme that uses a combination of polar coding and the Mersenne-Twister pseudo-random number generator (MT-PRNG) to achieve a super secured encoding. The pre-shared crypto-system cyphering key initiates the starting state of the MT-PRNG as a seed. The randomly generated sequences govern the values of the frozen bits in polarized bit channels and their associated indices. A half-bit-error-rate probability system performance is calculated when the encoding ciphering keys at the receiver differ by a single bit from those utilized at the transmitter. Using calculated numerical analysis, the system is shown to be secure against brute force attacks, Rao-Nam attacks, and polar code reconstruction attacks.

关键词： polar code polarized bit channels Initial state seed Data Security Encrypted Communications

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Low-latency BP decoder of polar code with alternate-structure scheduling scheme

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ELECTRONICS LETTERS 2020年第22期56卷 1215-1216页

作者： Zhang, Xiaojun Yan, Xiaofeng Cui, Jianming Dong, Yanfei Shandong Univ Sci & Technol Coll Elect & Informat Engn Qingdao Peoples R China

In this Letter, a new scheduling scheme for belief propagation (BP) is proposed to reduce the decoding latency. All the stages update messages at the same time, it improves the reliability and accelerates the decoding convergence. The authors also remove the last stage of factor graph to reduce computational complexity. Simulations show that the average decoding latency of a (1024,512) polar code is reduced to 29.4 clocks.

关键词： computational complexity scheduling graph theory decoding belief propagation reliability polar codes low-latency BP decoder alternate-structure scheduling scheme belief propagation decoding convergence polar code decoding latency reliability factor graph computational complexity

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180° rotationally invariant polar code

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ELECTRONICS LETTERS 2019年第1期55卷 26-27页

作者： Lee, Arim Oh, Wangrok Chungnam Natl Univ Dept Informat Commun Engn Daejeon South Korea

Non-data-aided (NDA) carrier phase recovery (CPR) is one of simple CPR algorithms which simply rotates received symbols to the nearest constellation point. Unfortunately, when the NDA CPR is used with M-ary phase shift keying, it suffers inherent M-fold phase ambiguity and thus the phase ambiguity must be resolved. On the other hand, the generator matrix of polar code G can be obtained with the Kronecker product of a 2x2 lower triangular matrix. Hence, the Hamming weights of all columns of G are given by non-negative integer powers of 2. Based on this observation, an 180 degrees rotationally invariant polar code suitable for digital communication systems employing binary phase shift keying and NDA CPR is proposed. The proposed polar code offers virtually identical performance under both 0 degrees and 180 degrees carrier phase offsets to that of conventional polar code with perfect CPR with identical encoding and decoding complexities.

关键词： phase shift keying encoding decoding digital communication nonnegative integer powers binary phase shift keying NDA CPR conventional polar code perfect CPR nondata-aided carrier phase recovery simple CPR algorithms received symbols nearest constellation point fold phase ambiguity generator matrix Kronecker product triangular matrix M-ary phase shift keying polar code carrier phase offsets Hamming weights digital communication systems encoding complexities decoding complexities decoding complexities rotationally invariant polar code

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Joint Design of Permutations and polar code Under BPL Decoding

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IEEE COMMUNICATIONS LETTERS 2023年第1期27卷 41-45页

作者： Wang, Chen Wu, Xiaofu Wei, Wu Yan, Jun Zhang, Gengxin Nanjing Univ Posts & Telecommun Natl Engn Res Ctr Commun & Networking Nanjing 210003 Peoples R China

Recently, belief propagation list (BPL) decoding of polar codes has been proposed for achieving state-of-the-art performance. By representing a polar code factor graph permutation with an equivalent bit index permutation, a single decoder can be applied on different permutated factor graphs, which is hardware-friendly. Nevertheless, the design of permutations under BPL decoding turns out to be cumbersome and highly relevant with the code structure. In this work, we propose a two-step approach for the joint design of permutations and polar code under BPL decoding. Firstly, an empirical approach is proposed for selection of good initial permutations under BPL decoding. Then, the joint optimization of permutations and polar code is implemented based on genetic algorithm. With the aid of an outer cyclic redundancy check (CRC) code, the proposed BPL scheme is shown to perform very close to CRC aided successive cancellation list (CA-SCL) decoding at practical SNRs.

关键词： Decoding polar codes Power line communications codes Indexes Standards Optimization polar code BPL decoding permutation design genetic algorithm

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Adaptive Rate polar code for DCT-Based Digital Image Transmission

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IEEE ACCESS 2023年 11卷 56196-56213页

作者： Adel, Mai El-Ramly, Salwa H. Abdelhamid, Bassant German Univ Cairo Dept Math Cairo 12613 Egypt Ain Shams Univ Fac Engn Elect & Commun Dept Cairo 11517 Egypt

polar code is a recent forward error correction technique that is characterized by its low encoding/decoding complexity and good error performance. In this paper, a complete image transmission system (transmitter and receiver) is proposed to improve the image quality over different types of channels such as Gaussian, Rayleigh and Rician channels. The proposed system is based on encoding the most significant quantized Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) coefficients of the digital image using adaptive rate polar coding, by changing the number of frozen bits depending on the number of significant DCT coefficients that depend on the channel quality. Simulation results reveal that the proposed system achieves better performance compared to the coded digital transmission schemes in terms of the Structural SIMilarity (SSIM) index and the Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) for different sizes of images. Moreover, it is not subject to "cliff effect" and exhibits improvement in image quality according to the channel quality.

关键词： Adaptive rate cliff effect DCT frozen bits image transmission polar code

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Performance analysis of multi-folded pipelined successive cancellation decoder architecture for polar code

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SADHANA-ACADEMY PROCEEDINGS IN ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024年第2期49卷 1-13页

作者： Kumar, Dinesh D. Selvakumari, Shantha R. Mepco Schlenk Engn Coll Dept Elect & Commun Engn Sivakasi 626005 Tamilnadu India

polar codes are the popular error-correcting codes and increased their attention after being adopted for the control channel in fifth-generation new radio (5G NR) standards. An efficient hardware architecture for polar code is often required with minimal encoding and decoding complexity. This work proposes a Multi-folded pipelined architecture and analyzes the performance in terms of latency, hardware utilization, and throughput. The designed architecture has two folded architectures interconnected in parallel to output 4-bits simultaneously. Folding transformations are used to reduce the number of idle processing elements (PEs) in every stage leading to the effective utilization of PE. Precomputation is effectively utilized in the PE to reduce the critical path delay, which improves the maximum operating frequency. A Loop-based shifting register (LSR) is employed to reduce the number of registers used. The analytical model for latency and utilization rate has been derived from the scheduling of the proposed architecture. The proposed design shows 63-71% higher hardware utilization than conventional semi-parallel design for code length N=512\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$N=512$$\end{document} suitable for the physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) in 5G NR. The architecture is also implemented in Virtex-6, ZYNQ-Ultrascale+ MPSoC device for maximum supported code length of 5G NR, i.e., up to 210\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ 2<^>{10} $$\end{document}, compared with the existing decoders. The proposed design also has the benefit of lesser look-up-table (LUT) consumption and

关键词： polar code pipelining folding successive cancellation decoding field programmable gate array (FPGA) vLSI architecture

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Many-to-One Mapping Based Truncated Probabilistic Shaped 64-QAM for Metro Transmissions Enabled by polar code

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JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY 2023年第21期41卷 6700-6709页

作者： Jia, Xiaoshuo Li, Yan Luo, Ming Yang, Chao Liu, Wu Hong, Xiaobin Qiu, Jifang Guo, Hongxiang Yang, Zhisheng Wu, Jian Beijing Univ Posts & Telecommun State Key Lab Informat Photon & Opt Commun Beijing 100876 Peoples R China China Informat & Commun Technol Grp Corp State Key Lab Opt Commun Technol & Network Wuhan 430074 Peoples R China

Metro transmissions requiring high capacity with low complexity are becoming more appealing. Aiming to cope with the increasing traffic of metro transmissions, high-order quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) formats requiring high optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) are candidates owing to the high spectral efficiency. Although the distribution matcher (DM) based probabilistic shaping (PS) technology with suitable shaping depth could improve the OSNR sensitivity for high order QAM, the DM-based PS schemes are suboptimal for metro transmissions due to the high complexity. Besides, if a PS scheme with large shaping depth is employed for high order QAM, some difficulties on the receiver-side digital signal processing (DSP) chain would occur and further deteriorate the system sensitivity. Therefore, to achieve probabilistic shaping with low complexity and balance shaping depth and OSNR sensitivity simultaneously, a polar coded many-to-one (MTO) mapping based truncated probabilistic shaped 64-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (PTPS-64QAM) is proposed and experimentally investigated, which could decrease the system complexity by utilizing specific-designed MTO mapper and polar code with short code length simultaneously. Experimental results show that about 2-dB and 1-dB improvements in terms of OSNR sensitivity and optimal launch power could be obtained under optical back-to-back (OBTB) case and transmission case compared to uniform distributed 64QAM (UD-64QAM) respectively. And an 800-km transmission of 60-GBaud PTPS-64QAM with a post bit error ratio (post-BER) lower than 1E-5 could be achieved, which implies that PTPS-64QAM scheme might be a powerful candidate for future metro transmissions.

关键词： Probabilistic logic Complexity theory Iterative decoding Quadrature amplitude modulation Iterative methods Signal to noise ratio polar codes High order modulation metro transmission optical fiber communication polar code truncated probabilistic shaping

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