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A cost-effective modular laboratory solution for industrial automation and applied engineering education

MethodsX 2025年 14卷

作者： Musa Al-Yaman Dana Alswaiti Adham Alsharkawi Majid Al-Taee Mechatronics Engineering Department University of Jordan Amman Jordan Independent Consultant of Computing and Systems Engineering Liverpool UK

In today’s digital landscape, affordable programmable logic controllers (PLCs) for industrial automation and applied engineering education are essential, as traditional setups are often too costly for many institutions and individuals. In this paper, a cost-effective, modular PLC lab was designed and developed to enable hands-on learning in industrial automation. The lab accommodates ten pairs of trainees, allowing for simultaneous experimentation using modular simulation kits tailored for various applications, such as traffic light systems, elevators, and automated filling systems. Trainees can prepare, test, and verify their code on these kits in real-time, enhancing their hands-on experience with programmable logic controllers. Each kit offers a set of features, including an integrated input/output interface that supports a variety of input types (e.g., switches, sensors, and push buttons) and output options (e.g., lights, motors, and actuators). This well-rounded setup is specifically designed to meet the educational and training objectives of the lab, promoting an interactive learning environment that develops essential automation skills and builds trainee confidence in applying PLC technology across real-world scenarios. • Offers a cost-effective PLC solution for industrial automation and engineering education, addressing the high cost of traditional systems. • Provides a scalable PLC lab setup developed to facilitate hands-on learning and practical experience in industrial automation, enabling simultaneous experimentation and collaborative learning. • Aligns with educational objectives, fostering an interactive, hands-on environment that builds essential automation skills, by enabling real-code preparation, testing and verification.

关键词： Applied engineering education Interactive training experience Hands-on learning Modular lab design programmable logic controller Simulation kits Modular and Transferable PLC Method

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Enhanced TARA model for heavy-duty vehicles using ISO/SAE 21434 and Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP)

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Expert Systems with Applications 2025年 291卷

作者： Narges Rahimi Beth-Anne Schuelke-Leech Mitra Mirhassani Department of Mechanical Automotive and Materials Engineering University of Windsor Windsor ON N9B 3P4 Canada Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Windsor Windsor ON N9B 3P4 Canada

In recent years, the automotive industry has increasingly recognized the importance of Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment (TARA) as a critical first step in cybersecurity planning. While standards such as ISO/SAE 21,434 provide a structured framework, they are primarily designed for light-duty vehicles and do not fully address the unique characteristics, operational environments, and vulnerabilities of heavy-duty (HD) commercial vehicles—despite their crucial role in public transportation, freight systems, and the supply chain. This study addresses that gap by customizing the ISO/SAE 21,434 risk assessment model specifically for HD vehicles. It employs a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methodology to assign weights to the severity and feasibility criteria using expert input through the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP). Expert-driven pairwise comparisons were conducted to evaluate the relative importance of each criterion separately for severity and feasibility assessment. The resulting model provides a tailored and robust approach for analyzing and assessing cybersecurity threats in HD vehicles, reflecting their distinct needs and risk profiles.

关键词： Heavy-duty vehicles Risk assessment Safety Security FAHP AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process DFD Data Flow Diagram ECU Electronic Control Unit EVITA E-safety Vehicle Intrusion proTected Applications FAHP Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process FMEA Failure Mode and Effects Analysis GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating HD Vehicle Heavy-Duty Vehicle HEAVENS HEAling Vulnerabilities to Enhance Software, Security, and Safety LD Vehicle Light-Duty Vehicle MCDM Multi-Criteria Decision Making MD Vehicle Medium-Duty Vehicle OBD On-Board Diagnostic PLC programmable logic controller TARA Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment TMT Microsoft Threat Modeling Tool

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programmable logic controller implementation of an auto-tuned predictive control based on minimal plant information

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ISA TRANSACTIONS 2011年第1期50卷 92-100页

作者： Valencia-Palomo, G. Rossiter, J. A. Univ Sheffield Dept Automat Control & Syst Engn Sheffield S1 3JD S Yorkshire England

This paper makes two key contributions. First, it tackles the issue of the availability of constrained predictive control for low-level control loops. Hence, it describes how the constrained control algorithm is embedded in an industrial programmable logic controller (PLC) using the IEC 61131-3 programming standard. Second, there is a definition and implementation of a novel auto-tuned predictive controller;the key novelty is that the modelling is based on relatively crude but pragmatic plant information. Laboratory experiment tests were carried out in two bench-scale laboratory systems to prove the effectiveness of the combined algorithm and hardware solution. For completeness, the results are compared with a commercial proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller (also embedded in the PLC) using the most up to date auto-tuning rules. (C) 2010 ISA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

关键词： Predictive control Auto-tuning programmable logic controller IEC 61131-3

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A Decomposition-Based Development Method for Industrial Control Systems

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IEEE ACCESS 2019年 7卷 93161-93174页

作者： Xiong, Jiawen Li, Ju Shi, Jianqi Huang, Yanhong East China Normal Univ Natl Trusted Embedded Software Engn Technol Res C Shanghai 200062 Peoples R China

Industrial control systems (ICSs), especially distributed control systems (DCSs), are usually composed of several subsystems. Each subsystem is controlled by a control unit such as a programmable logic controller (PLC) or a micro-controller and collaborates with other subsystems via the field bus, Ethernet, or other communication links. In the traditional development process, engineers program for each PLC separately and skillfully orchestrate the collaboration among subsystems, which is difficult and errorprone. The larger the scale of the ICS is, the higher the complexity of the collaboration is, and the more errorprone the development process is. In this paper, we propose a decomposition-based development method for distributed ICSs to reduce the difficulty of developing distributed ICSs whose subsystems cooperate with each other. First, we present a general event-triggered specification language named Industrial Modeling Collaboration Language (IMCL) for modeling ICSs;the language allows describing system functions and physical resources in one unified model. Second, we provide an approach for decomposing the complex system model into multiple fine-grained and interactive subsystem models. Specifically, under given resource constraints, we propose an automatic decomposition and collaboration algorithm based on the IMCL model to meet the original functional requirements. In this way, engineers can develop distributed control systems without considering the underlying complex interaction mechanisms. We present a case study to demonstrate it.

关键词： Automatic decomposition distributed control system industrial control system model collaboration model decomposition programmable logic controller

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On the practical integration of anomaly detection techniques in industrial control applications

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION 2019年 24卷 48-68页

作者： Haller, Piroska Genge, Bela Duka, Adrian-Vasile Petru Maior Univ Tirgu Mures Dept Comp Sci Mures 540088 Romania

Despite significant advances made on anomaly detection systems, few reports are found documenting their practical integration into the industrial realm. Furthermore, the literature reports a wide range of complex detection strategies, which may require hardware changes/updates in order to be supported by critical industrial equipment such as industrial controllers (e.g., programmable logic controllers). To address these issues, this paper documents a systematic methodology for the practical integration of lightweight anomaly detection algorithms into industrial control applications. It shows that industrial controllers, and in particular the scheduling rate of user programs, are sensitive to network traffic-based disturbances. Therefore, the methodology embraces the task scheduling rates found in control applications, and their deviation from the "normal" behavior. It designs a "monitoring" task, and an innovative algorithm for detecting abnormal task scheduling rates by leveraging the cumulative sum model (CUSUM) and a regression strategy applied on a specific time interval. Essentially, the approach enhances the industrial controller with a "security module" that can trigger alerts to identify early cyber attacks. The approach is extensively analyzed in the context of two industrial controllers: a Phoenix Contact ILC 350-PN controller, and a Siemens SIMATIC S7-1200 programmable controller. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： Anomaly detection Industrial control system programmable logic controller Cumulative sum

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Combustion control system for coke ovens embedded with auto positioning systems

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IRONMAKING & STEELMAKING 2019年第4期46卷 320-334页

作者： Patra, Prabal Kundu, Chitresh Agrawal, Ashish Tata Steel Ltd Automat Div Jamshedpur 831001 Bihar India

A good grade coke produces highest thermal energy and it is highly efficient in hot metal reduction. In order to concentrate the carbon in coke, the coke making process involves carbonisation of coal to high temperature (1100 degrees C) in an oxygen-free atmosphere. There is always a need to efficiently automate the coke oven operations as much as possible. In order to improve the level of control and management of coke oven, the research on intelligent control system is carried out. In modern advanced control system of coke oven, the control scheme of combination of feedback and feed-forward merged with management is widely utilised. The integrated management and control system of coke oven is introduced systematically, including the production plan and scheduling management (dynamic scheduling) and heating control system (mathematical modelling) i.e. evaluating battery temperature, intelligent combustion control system and the pressure control of gas collector of coke oven battery.

关键词： Coke ovens heating control system distributed control system human machine interface programmable logic controller radio frequency ready oven temperature flue temperature measurement man machine interface object linking and embedding for process control coke mass temperature

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KST: Executable Formal Semantics of IEC 61131-3 Structured Text for Verification

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IEEE ACCESS 2019年 7卷 14593-14602页

作者： Huang, Yanhong Bu, Xiangxing Zhu, Gang Ye, Xin Zhu, Xiaoran Shi, Jianqi East China Normal Univ Shanghai Key Lab Trustworthy Comp Shanghai 20062 Peoples R China East China Normal Univ Natl Trusted Embedded Software Engn Technol Res C Shanghai 20062 Peoples R China East China Normal Univ Hardware Software Codesign Technol & Applicat Eng Shanghai 20062 Peoples R China

programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are special purpose computers designed to perform industrial automation tasks. They require highly reliable control programs, particularly when used in safety-critical systems such as nuclear power stations. In the development of reliable control programs, formal methods are "highly recommended" because the correctness of intended programs can be mathematically proven. Formal methods generally require precise semantics indicating how the program behaves during execution. However, for PLC programming languages, formal semantics is not always available rendering the application of formal methods highly challenging. In this paper, we present formal operational semantics of structured text, a widely used PLC programming language. The semantics is based on the ST language specification provided by IEC 61131-3, a generally acknowledged international standard for PLCs. We define the formal semantics in K which is a rewriting-based semantic framework and has been successfully applied in defining the semantics of many general-purpose programming languages such as C [1] and, Java [2]. We validate our formal semantics by testing examples from the standard and then apply the semantics on the verification of control programs for PLCs.

关键词： Formal verification K framework operational semantics programmable logic controller

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Stealthy Attack Against Redundant controller Architecture of Industrial Cyber-Physical System

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IEEE INTERNET OF THINGS JOURNAL 2019年第6期6卷 9783-9793页

作者： Ma, Rongkuan Cheng, Peng Zhang, Zhenyong Liu, Wenwen Wang, Qingxian Wei, Qiang State Key Lab Math Engn & Adv Comp Zhengzhou 450001 Henan Peoples R China Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Ind Control Technol Hangzhou 310000 Zhejiang Peoples R China

In an industrial cyber-physical system (iCPS), the controller plays a critical role in guaranteeing reliability and stability. Therefore, redundant controller architecture is a well-adopted approach by distributed control systems (DCS), supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), and other typical iCPSs. They monitor and control the critical industrial process, such as power generation, chemical industry, water treatment plant, etc. Redundant controller architecture has been designed and largely implemented in response to unpredictable mechanical failures. However, this structure initially proposed for guaranteeing reliability and safety may expand the cyber-attack surface, posing the risk that an attacker may take advantage of this architecture for stealthy attacks. In this article, we analyze the vulnerability arising from the redundant controller architecture and propose a combined attack methodology against these redundant controller architecture systems in a stealthy manner. We find several 0-day vulnerabilities of the real-world devices from three manufacturers and further implement the combined attack over these devices. Our experimental results over various types of real-world devices show that the redundant controller architecture can be exploited to compromise all tested systems stealthily. We also present guidelines for mitigating this risk.

关键词： 0-day vulnerability industrial cyber-physical system (iCPS) programmable logic controller redundant controller architecture stealthy attack

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A Scalable Automation System for the Auxiliary and DC Power Supply Switchgear of Power Plants and Substations

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THERMAL ENGINEERING 2019年第8期66卷 575-579页

作者： Makarov, V. O. Trofimov, A., V Protvino Expt Works Progress Protvino 142280 Moscow Oblast Russia Natl Res Univ Moscow Power Engn Inst Moscow 111250 Russia

The principles of implementing a scalable microprocessor system for automation of auxiliary and d.c. power supply switchgear at power plants and substations are described taking as an example the demonstration model of the cabinet with self-contained switchgears for shutoff and control valves (of the KRUZA P type). The computerized subsystem constructed on the basis of a communication programmable logic controller is described. The controller serves for supporting digital data exchange according to the standard protocols used in the electric power industry (Modbus, IEC 61850, and IEC 60870-101/104). The field-level digital networks transmit data exchanged with distributed signal input/output modules and panel-mounted instruments. The upper-level network transmits these data to the process instrumentation and control system (process I&C). Approaches to elaborating application software that allows scalable automation system configurations to be developed are considered. Embodiment versions in the form of a self-contained automation system, process I&C subsystem, or a remote-control subsystem are given. The use of standard modules in cabinet designs and in control algorithms helps enhance the reliability in designing production process control systems.

关键词： process instrumentation and control system auxiliary power supply switchgear d.c. switchgear guaranteed power supply system programmable logic controller

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Using different wavelengths and irradiance on the microalgae Acutodesmus obliquus batch culture

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JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019年第7期94卷 2141-2147页

作者： Ximena Hurtado, Diana Lorena Garzon-Castro, Claudia Cortes-Romero, John Tello, Edisson Univ La Sabana Fac Engn CAPSAB Campus Univ Puente del Comun Chia Colombia Univ La Sabana Fac Engn Bioprospecting Res Grp Campus Univ Puente del Comun Chia Colombia Univ La Sabana Fac Engn Biosci Doctoral Program Campus Univ Puente del Comun Chia Colombia Univ Nacl Colombia Dept Elect & Elect Engn Bogota Colombia

BACKGROUND The quality of light, such as wavelength and the intensity affect the performance of algal growth and lipid production. Moreover, these variables also affect the lipids profile. To study the interrelation among these variables, Acutodesmus obliquus (Scenedesmus obliquus UTEX393) a microalga, was cultivated using illumination by light-emitting-diode surface mount device extensions emitting red (lambda = 620-750 nm), yellow (lambda = 570-590 nm), green (lambda = 495-570 nm) and violet (lambda = 380-450 nm) light. Additionally, each culture was illuminated at different light intensities (I-1 = 8.75, I-2 = 14.22 and I-3 = 19.69 W m(-2)). Finally, all samples were analysed by GC-MS. RESULTS The results showed: (1) the biomass production is directly proportional to the light intensity, e.g. at I-3 = 19.69 W m(-2) violet (36.80 mg L-1), yellow (25.49 mg L-1) and red (39.44 mg L-1) showed the major production;(2) however, the lipids were produced in minor amounts at major violet light intensity (3.64 mg L-1 at I-3 = 19.69 W m(-2));(3) the major lipids production (20.56 mg L-1) was obtained with red light at I-3 = 19.69 W m(-2) and (4) A. obliquus, under the parameters established was a good producer of lipids. CONCLUSIONS The major amount of biomass was obtained at red, yellow and violet light;meanwhile, the low biomass production, using green light, was associated with inefficient absorption of green light by chlorophyll. Additionally, palmitic, linolenic and linoleic were the most produced lipids, establishing a dependence between light wavelength and irradiance with biomass and lipid production. These results support the use of wavelengths and intensities to produce a group of specific lipids according to the needs of different industries. (c) 2019 Society of Chemical Industry

关键词： Acutodesmus obliquus biomass production irradiance lipid production programmable logic controller wavelength

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