The development of advanced photocatalysts capable of addressing both environmental remediation and sustainable energy conversion remains imperative. This work reports the hydrothermal synthesis of a CaIn2S4–BiFeO3, ...
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The development of advanced photocatalysts capable of addressing both environmental remediation and sustainable energy conversion remains imperative. This work reports the hydrothermal synthesis of a CaIn2S4–BiFeO3, (CIS/BFO) Z-scheme heterojunction, followed by comprehensive structural, morphological, optical, and electrochemical characterization. Leveraging a Z-scheme charge-transfer pathway improves visible-light harvesting, accelerates charge-carrier separation, and strengthens redox capability, thereby overcoming the inherent shortcomings of conventional type-II heterostructures. The optimized 2:1 CIS/BFO composite demonstrated a pseudo-first-order kinetic rate constant (k = 0.049 min−1), surpassing those of pristine bismuth ferrite (BiFeO₃, BFO;0.006 min−1) and calcium indium sulfide (CaIn₂S₄, CIS;0.013 min−1). Under optimal conditions (32.23 mg/L tetracycline (TC) concentration, 0.655 g L−1 catalyst dosage, 65.93 min irradiation, pH 5.69), 99.15 % TC degradation was achieved, as validated by response surface methodology-central composite design (rsm-ccd) modeling (R2 = 0.9994). Electron spin resonance (ESR) and radical quenching experiments confirmed that superoxide (•O2−) and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals were the dominant reactive species facilitating TC degradation. The catalyst exhibited ≥85 % degradation efficiency in real-water matrices and retained 91.1 % efficiency after five cycles, demonstrating exceptional stability and reusability. For hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production, the catalyst yielded 1321.06 μM in pure water, which increased to 3104.38 μM with isopropanol, indicating enhanced electron retention. In nitrogen (N₂) fixation, it generated 571.46 μM ammonium (NH₄+), further increasing to 813.37 μM with methanol, highlighting its robust reduction capabilities. The catalyst maintained 92.5 % efficiency after fi
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