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19th Conference on Ph.D Research in Microelectronics and Electronics (PRIME)

作者： Moschella, Davide Berretta, Davide Tosi, Alberto Villa, Federica Politecn Milan Dipartimento Elettron Informaz & Bioingn Milan Italy

ISBN: (纸本)9798350386301;9798350386318

The exploitation of quantum phenomena has become a pioneering frontier allowing imaging in scenarios where direct illumination is challenging or impractical. Quantum Ghost Imaging (QGI), among various techniques, stands out as a robust and promising approach. While in traditional imaging light interacts directly with the scene, QGI makes use of two separate quantum-correlated beams, one illuminating the object and later being detected by a non-spatially resolved sensor, the other one being straight detected by a pixelated sensor. The scene is then reconstructed by comparing the time tags associated to the detected photons. This work focuses on the design of the spatially solved imager, a 64 x 64 pixel Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (spad) sensor. It is implemented with a 3D-stack approach employing the STMicroelectronics C40 technology node for the bottom tier containing the processing electronics, a dedicated imaging technology for the top die embedding the spad array, and a microlens array for enhancing the collection efficiency. The integrated 12-bit Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs) resolution is 200 ps and their stability to process-voltage-temperature (PVT) variations is guaranteed by a shared on-chip wide-tuning range Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL). The event- driven jump readout approach maximizes the acquisition duty-cycle allowing the chip to operate at up to 1.2 Mframe/ s.

关键词： Quantum Ghost Imaging (QGI) spad array 40 nm technology Time-To-Digital Converter (TDC) Eventdriven Readout

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Fast-Gated 16 x 16 spad array With 16 on-Chip 6 ps Time-to-Digital Converters for Non-Line-of-Sight Imaging

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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL 2022年第17期22卷 16874-16885页

作者： Riccardo, Simone Conca, Enrico Sesta, Vincenzo Velten, Andreas Tosi, Alberto Politecn Milan Dipartimento Elettron Informaz & Bioingn DEIB I-20133 Milan Italy Univ Wisconsin Madison WI 53706 USA

We present the design and characterization of a fully-integrated array of 16 x 16 Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (spads) with fast-gating capabilities and 16 on-chip 6 ps time-to-digital converters, which has been embedded in a compact imaging module. Such sensor has been developed for Non-Line-Of-Sight imaging applications, which require: i) a narrow instrument response function, for a centimeter-accurate single-shot precision;ii) fast-gated spads, for time-filtering of directly reflected photons;iii) high photon detection probability, for acquiring faint signals undergoing multiple scattering events. Thanks to a novel multiple differential spad-spad sensing approach, spad detectors can be swiftly activated in less than 500 ps and the full-width at half maximum of the instrument response function is always less than 75 ps (60 ps on average). Temporal responses are consistently uniform throughout the gate window, showing just few picoseconds of time dispersion when 30 ns gate pulses are applied, while the differential non-linearity is as low as 250 fs. With a photon detection probability peak of 70% at 490 nm, a fill-factor of 9.6% and up to 1.6 . 10(8) photon time-tagging measurements per second, such sensor fulfills the demand for fully-integrated imaging solutions optimized for non-line-of-sight imaging applications, enabling to cut exposure times while also optimizing size, weight, power and cost, thus paving the way for further scaled architectures.

关键词： 3-D imaging fast-gating image sensor non-line-of-sight imaging single-photon avalanche diodes spad array time-correlated single-photon counting time-of-flight time-to-digital converters

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spad array for LiDAR with Region-Of-Interest selection and smart TDC routing

SPAD array for LiDAR with Region-Of-Interest selection and s...

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Conference on Quantum Optics and Photon Counting

作者： Severini, Fabio Sesta, Vincenzo Madonini, Francesca Incoronato, Alfonso Villa, Federica Zappa, Franco Politecn Milan Dipartimento Elettron Informaz & Bioingn Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32 I-20133 Milan Italy

ISBN: (数字)9781510643772

ISBN: (纸本)9781510643772

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a technique that can be applied to identify the position of objects in an industrial environment, which usually suffer by strong background illumination. In this work we present a novel architecture of a Single Photon Avalanche Diode (spad) array optimized for a direct Time Of Flight (dTOF) single-point rangefinder system, with a distance range of about 2 m and a resolution of a few centimeters. The ASIC has been implemented in a 0.16 mu m Bipolar-CMOS-DMOS (BCD) technology and includes 10 x 40 pixels, 80 Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs), and a histogram builder. The peculiarity of this work is the ability of performing a Region-Of-Interest (ROI) selection of just those pixels illuminated by the laser spot, as well as a smart sharing of timing electronics. ROI selection is performed through spad-connected up/down counters, that are decremented whenever the connected spad is triggered within the time window where the laser spot is expected, whereas they are incremented when the connected spad is triggered within a time window where the laser pulse is not present. If the counter stores a negative value, the pixel is considered to be within the laser spot, and just those pixels might trigger a TDC during the following 500 samples frame. Each TDC is shared among 5 non-adjacent pixels that should not be hit at the same time, considering the expected laser spot dimension. The implemented TDCs have 75 ps resolution and 19.2 ns Full Scale Range (FSR).

关键词： LiDAR dTOF spad array integrated TDC photon counting Geiger Mode APD

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The Bit Error Performance and Information Transfer Rate of spad array Optical Receivers

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS 2020年第9期68卷 5689-5705页

作者： Sarbazi, Elham Safari, Majid Haas, Harald Univ Edinburgh Inst Digital Commun Sch Engn Li Fi Res & Dev Ctr Edinburgh EH9 3FD Midlothian Scotland

In this paper the photon counting characteristics, the information rate and the bit error performance of single-photon avalanche diode (spad) arrays are investigated. It is shown that for sufficiently large arrays, the photocount distribution is well approximated by a Gaussian distribution with dead-time-dependent mean and variance. Because of dead time, the spad array channel is subject to counting losses, part of which are due to inter-slot interference (ISI) distortions. Consequently, this channel has memory. The information rate of this channel is assessed. Two auxiliary discrete memoryless channels (DMCs) are proposed which provide upper and lower bounds on the spad array information rate. It is shown that in sufficiently large arrays, ISI is negligible and the bounds are tight. Under such conditions, the spad array channel is precisely modelled as a memoryless channel. A discrete-time Gaussian channel with input-dependent mean and variance is adopted and the properties of the capacity-achieving input distributions are studied. Using a numerical algorithm, the information rate and the capacity-achieving input distributions, subject to peak and average power constraints are obtained. Furthermore, the bit error performance of a spad-based system with on-off keying (OOK) is evaluated for various array sizes, dead times and background count levels.

关键词： Single-photon avalanche diodes Photonics arrays Information rates Monte Carlo methods Semiconductor diodes Optical arrays Single-photon avalanche diode (spad) spad array photon counting dead time capacity optical wireless communications

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Sub-Pixel Scanning High-Resolution Panoramic 3D Imaging Based on a spad array

IEEE PHOTONICS JOURNAL

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IEEE PHOTONICS JOURNAL 2021年第4期13卷 1页

作者： Xue, Ruikai Kang, Yan Zhang, Tongyi Li, Lifei Zhao, Wei Chinese Acad Sci Xian Inst Opt & Precis Mech State Key Lab Transient Opt & Photon Xian 710119 Shaanxi Peoples R China Univ Chinese Acad Sci Beijing 100049 Peoples R China

3D imaging based on single-photon avalanche diode (spad) arrays is of interest in many applications. Limited by the small array size and low fill-factor of the available spad array, it is difficult for spad array-based lidars to achieve high-resolution and high-quality 3D images currently. Here, we propose a sub-pixel continuously scanning panoramic 3D imaging method. This method uses sub-pixel scanning to increase spatial resolution and employs accumulating photon counts at the different pixel of the array for the same target point to improve 3D image quality. We have established an experimental system based on a 32x32 spadarray and a diffraction optical element (DOE) with 32 x 32 beamlet. By sub-pixel scanning for a target 3 m away and accumulating photon counts, we demonstrated that the spatial resolution has been improved from 3 mm to 0.33 mm and the 3D image quality has been improved evidently.

关键词： 3D imaging lidar spad array panoramic imaging sub-pixel scanning

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Mixed Design of spad array based TOF for Depth Camera and Unmanned Vehicle Applications 15

Mixed Design of SPAD array based TOF for Depth Camera and Un...

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15th International Conference on Synthesis, Modeling, Analysis and Simulation Methods and Applications to Circuit Design (SMACD) / 14th Conference on PhD Research in Microelectronics and Electronics (PRIME)

作者： Shi, Weiwei Pan, An Shenzhen Univ Coll Informat Engn Shenzhen Peoples R China

ISBN: (纸本)9781538651537

Depends on the increasing requirements of unmanned vehicle mobile Lidar systems, this paper presents a system design based on pulsed TOF depth image cameras. The design has a detection range of 300m and detecting resolution of 1.5cm. Pixels are made of spad. Meanwhile, innovative structure of multi-pixel sharing TDC is proposed, chip area is greatly reduced and the fill factor of light-sensing surface area is optimized. The TCSPC module with the functionalities of receiving each photon, measuring photon flight time and processing depth information is also included in the chip design. Based on 0.13 mu m CIS CMOS technology, the entire design indicates high integration with low power and fast response features.

关键词： Depth Image Sensor TOF spad array TCSPC

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Time-to-digital converters and histogram builders in spad arrays for pulsed-LiDAR

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MEASUREMENT 2023年 212卷

作者： Sesta, Vincenzo Incoronato, Alfonso Madonini, Francesca Villa, Federica Politecn Milan Dipartimento Elettron Informaz & Bioingn I-20133 Milan Italy

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a 3D imaging technique widely used in many applications such as augmented reality, automotive, machine vision, spacecraft navigation and landing. Pulsed-LiDAR is one of the most diffused LiDAR techniques which relies on the measurement of the round-trip travel time of an optical pulse back-scattered from a distant target. Besides the light source and the detector, Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs) are fundamental components in pulsed-LiDAR systems, since they allow to measure the back-scattered photon arrival times and their performance directly impact on LiDAR system requirements (i.e., range, precision, and measurements rate). In this work, we present a review of recent TDC architectures suitable to be integrated in spad-based CMOS arrays and a review of data processing solutions to derive the TOF information. Furthermore, main TDC parameters and processing techniques are described and analyzed considering pulsed-LiDAR requirements.

关键词： Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) Time -Of -Flight (TOF) spad array Time -to -Digital Converter (TDC) Data processing Histogram Centroid computation

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Converting non-confocal measurements into semi-confocal ones with timing-accuracy improving for non-line-of-sight imaging

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OPTICS AND LASERS IN ENGINEERING 2024年 176卷

作者： Zheng, Yue Wang, Wenbo Zhang, Chenghang Zhang, Yexin Zhang, Qi Li, Lijing Beihang Univ Sch Instrumentat Sci & Optoelect Engn Beijing 100191 Peoples R China Beijing Huawei Digital Technol Co Ltd Beijing 100085 Peoples R China

Non -line -of -sight (NLOS) imaging enables an imaging system to look around corners, which has drawn much attention in recent years. With the confocal setup employing the raster scanning of overlapped illumination and detection points on the relay wall, NLOS imaging has well -established image reconstruction algorithms. In order to elevate the detection efficiency, the single -photon -avalanche -diode (spad) array is actively developed and has become a well acknowledged way to improve the practicability of NLOS imaging. However, applying spad array naturally leads to the non-confocal configuration (illumination and detection points not overlapped) and lacks efficient image retrieving algorithms, which remains a serious problem in NLOS imaging. In this work, nonconfocal measurements obtained by point illumination and spad-array detection are successfully transformed to semi-confocal measurements using the proposed approach based on sectionalized ellipsoid interpolation (SEI), in which the NLOS object is represented as multiple ellipsoid sections corresponding to the non-confocal histogram. By investigating the fact that the ellipsoid section can be refinedly sliced and each slice directly maps to each time -bin in the new confocal histogram, the timing resolution for the emulated confocal measurements can be improved even beyond that for the detector itself. Simulations and experiments have been conducted and testified the advantage of the proposed SEI-based approach over the existing filtered backprojection (FBP) and normal-moveout-correction-based (NMO-based) approaches. Bar -shaped objects (used for resolution estimation) with the interval of 65.6 mm in simulation and 100 mm in experiments, which are not resolved by FBP and NMObased approaches, can be distinguished by the SEI-based approach with the image contrast of 0.094 and 0.228, respectively. For a large E -shape object with the horizontal size of 1.18 m in simulation, the reconstruction nonuniformity is red

关键词： Non -line -of -sight imaging spad array Temporal resolution Non-confocal configuration

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Direct Time-of-Flight Single-Photon Imaging

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES 2022年第6期69卷 2794-2805页

作者： Gyongy, Istvan Dutton, Neale A. W. Henderson, Robert K. Univ Edinburgh Sch Engn Edinburgh EH9 3JL Midlothian Scotland STMicroelectronics Imaging Div Edinburgh EH3 5DA Midlothian Scotland

This article provides a tutorial introduction to the direct Time-of-Flight (dToF) signal chain and typical artifacts introduced due to detector and processing electronic limitations. We outline the memory requirements of embedded histograms related to desired precision and detectability, which are often the limiting factor in the array resolution. A survey of integrated CMOS dToF arrays is provided highlighting future prospects to further scaling through process optimization or smart embedded processing.

关键词： Histograms Photonics Imaging Detectors Laser radar Single-photon avalanche diodes Sensors 3-D ranging CMOS image sensor (CIS) direct Time-of-Flight (dToF) light detection and ranging (LiDAR) silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) single-photon avalanche diode (spad) spad array

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Hyper-hemispheric lens distortion model for 3D-imaging spad-array-based applications 6

Hyper-hemispheric lens distortion model for 3D-imaging SPAD-...

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Optical Systems Design - Optical Design and Engineering VI

作者： Pernechele, Claudio Villa, Federica A. INAF Natl Inst Astrophys I-35122 Padua Italy Univ Padua CISAS Ctr Studies & Act Space I-35131 Padua Italy Politecn Milan Dip Elettron Informaz & Bioingn I-20133 Milan Italy

ISBN: (纸本)9781628418156

Panoramic omnidirectional lenses have the typical draw-back effect to obscure the frontal view, producing the classic "donut-shape" image in the focal plane. We realized a panoramic lens in which the frontal field is make available to be imaged in the focal plane together with the panoramic field, producing a FoV of 360 degrees in azimuth and 270 degrees in elevation;it have then the capabilities of a fish eye plus those of a panoramic lens: we call it hyper-hemispheric lens. We built and test an all-spherical hyper-hemispheric lens. The all-spherical configuration suffer for the typical issues of all ultra wide angle lenses: there is a large distortion at high view angles. The fundamental origin of the optical problems resides on the fact that chief rays angles on the object side are not preserved passing through the optics preceding the aperture stop (fore-optics). This effect produce an image distortion on the focal plane, with the focal length changing along the elevation angles. Moreover, the entrance pupil is shifting at large angle, where the paraxial approximation is not more valid, and tracing the rays appropriately require some effort to the optical designer. It has to be noted here as the distortion is not a source-point-aberrations: it is present also in well corrected optical lenses. Image distortion may be partially corrected using aspheric surface. We describe here how we correct it for our original hyper-hemispheric lens by designing an aspheric surface within the optical train and optimized for a Single Photon Avalanche Diode (spad) array-based imaging applications.

关键词： optical design wide-angle lens omnidirectional lens robotics video surveillance spad array

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