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The impact of reading time constraints on text comprehension and eye movements

READING AND WRITING 2025年 1-23页

作者： Vibert, Nicolas Colas, Zorha Danion, Frederic R. Univ Poitiers CNRS UMR 7295 Ctr Rech Cognit & ApprentissageUniv Tours Poitiers France

Although the time available to read a text is crucial for comprehension, there is not yet any comprehensive within-participant study describing how text comprehension decreases and readers' eye movements are adjusted with increasing time constraints. Consequently, this study examined how imposing reading times influenced both text comprehension and eye movements. Thirty participants had to read three-sentence texts within a time limit (6.3, 9.5, 19.0 or 38.0 s) or without a time constraint, and then to answer a question about each text to assess comprehension. At the longest reading time, text comprehension was good, with 87% correct answers. Text comprehension decreased with reading time, reaching 49% correct answers at the shortest reading time. Interestingly, text comprehension decreased linearly with the average actual speed at which participants read the texts, estimated from horizontal gaze velocity. Between the longest and shortest reading times, saccade amplitude and gaze velocity increased by 16% and 37%, respectively, while fixation duration decreased by 14%. Adapting eye movements to time constraints did not radically change how participants read texts, as they continued to make regressive saccades and to fixate three quarters of content words even at the shortest reading time. Finally, under tight time constraints, the greater participants' saccade amplitude and gaze velocity, the higher their answer accuracy. This study highlights the resilience of the cognitive and oculomotor mechanisms involved in reading, since a six-fold reduction in reading time only induced a two-fold reduction in comprehension, and opens new avenues for assessing text comprehension using eye movements.

关键词： Text comprehension Eye tracking time constraints Fast reading Reading speed

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time constraints mediate predator-induced plasticity in immune function, condition, and life history

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ECOLOGY 2006年第4期87卷 809-815页

作者： Stoks, R De Block, M Slos, S Van Doorslaer, W Rolff, J Univ Sheffield Dept Anim & Plant Sci Sheffield S10 2TN S Yorkshire England Catholic Univ Louvain Aquat Ecol Lab B-3000 Louvain Belgium Dartmouth Coll Dept Biol Sci Hanover NH 03755 USA

The simultaneous presence of predators and a limited time for development imposes a conflict: accelerating growth under time constraints comes at the cost of higher predation risk mediated by increased foraging. The few studies that have addressed this tradeoff have dealt only with life history traits such as age and size at maturity. Physiological traits have largely been ignored in studies assessing the impact of environmental stressors, and it is largely unknown whether they respond independently of life history traits. Here, we studied the simultaneous effects of time constraints, i.e., as imposed by seasonality, and predation risk on immune defense, energy storage, and life history in lestid damselflies. As predicted by theory, larvae accelerated growth and development under time constraints while the opposite occurred under predation risk. The activity of phenoloxidase, an important component of insect immunity, and investment in fat storage were reduced both under time constraints and in the presence of predators. These reductions were smaller when time constraints and predation risk were combined. This indicates that predators can induce sublethal costs linked to both life history and physiology in their prey, and that time constraints can independently reduce the impact of predator-induced changes in life history and physiology.

关键词： carry-over costs complex life cycle damselfly larvae fat reserves immune function life history plasticity predation risk time constraints

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time constraints imposed by anthropogenic environments alter social behaviour in longtailed macaques

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ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 2019年 150卷 157-165页

作者： Marty, Pascal R. Beisner, Brianne Kaburu, Stefano S. K. Balasubramaniam, Krishna Bliss-Moreau, Eliza Ruppert, Nadine Sah, Shahrul Anuar Mohd Ismail, Ahmad Arlet, Maigorzata E. Atwill, Edward R. McCowan, Brenda Univ Calif Davis Dept Populat Hlth & Reprod Sch Vet Med 1089 Vet Med Dr Davis CA 95616 USA Univ Sains Malaysia Sch Biol Sci George Town Malaysia Univ Calif Davis Calif Natl Primate Res Ctr Davis CA 95616 USA Univ Calif Davis Dept Psychol Davis CA 95616 USA Univ Putra Malaysia Fac Sci Dept Biol Serdang Malaysia Adam Mickiewicz Univ Anthropol Inst Poznan Poland

Humans and their associated anthropogenic factors may strongly affect the demographics, activity and fragmentation of wild animal populations. Yet, the degree and nature of such impact on indicators of animals' social relationships remain largely under-investigated, despite the well-documented importance of strong social ties for an individual's health and fitness. Here, we examined whether interactions with humans may affect core aspects of social life in a primate species, by constraining the time available for individuals to engage in social interactions. Specifically, we predicted that individuals who spend more time monitoring or interacting with humans would reduce their time socializing with conspecifics (i.e. the time constraints hypothesis). Alternatively, human presence may result in increased levels of stress, leading to an increase in social behaviours that serve as a coping mechanism (i.e. the social stress hypothesis). We collected data between September 2016 and September 2017 on four groups of longtailed macaques, Macaca fascicularis, in Malaysia at two sites with differing levels of human impact. In support of the time constraints hypothesis, we found that at the site with moderate human impact, monkeys who monitored human activity more frequently engaged less often in grooming. In contrast, at the site with high human impact, we found evidence supporting the social stress hypothesis, as indicators of stress were positively associated with social interactions, although we could not link them to the presence of humans. Our results suggest that the nature of human impact on macaques' social behaviour is dependent upon the intensity of human activity and interaction with the macaques. These findings therefore provide insights into how humans may influence individual fitness and group social structure in animals living in an anthropogenic environment. More broadly, our results may lead to a better understanding of animal behaviour in anthropogenic envir

关键词： anthropogenic environment human-wildlife interactions nonhuman primates social interactions stress time constraints

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Model to determine the capacity of wafer fabrications for batch-serial processes with time constraints

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRODUCTION RESEARCH 2011年第10期49卷 2907-2923页

作者： Tu, Ying-Mei Chen, Chiu-Ling Chung Hua Univ Dept Ind Management Hsinchu 300 Taiwan Chung Hua Univ Grad Inst Management Technol Hsinchu 300 Taiwan

time constraints related issues are unavoidable in wafer fabrications. However, when the lots released from a batch workstation overload the downstream serial workstation the consequences are more serious. Under a time constraints environment, peak workload is a critical problem that seriously hurts the overall performance of the downstream workstation. This work applies a GI/G/m queuing network to develop a capacity planning model for batch-serial processes. By applying this queuing network model, the expected waiting time between batch-serial processes can be estimated. Managers can also determine the capacity through the setting of expected rate of exceeding time constraints. The arrival smoothing of the upstream batch workstation and its effect on the downstream workstation is also analysed. The results show that arrival smoothing can effectively decrease the waiting time on the downstream serial workstation through increasing the upstream number of batch machines and decreasing the batch size. The results also conclude that increasing the number of downstream serial machines is not the only option under the batch-serial process in a time constraint environment. Therefore, an investment function of batch-serial process equipment with time constraints is established in this work that can support managers when making investment decisions.

关键词： capacity planning time constraints batch-serial processes queuing theory arrival smoothing

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time constraints and the opportunity costs of oversight

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JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL POLITICS 2016年第3期28卷 431-460页

作者： Strayhorn, Joshua A. Carrubba, Clifford J. Giles, Micheal W. Univ Colorado 333 UCB Boulder CO 80309 USA Emory Univ Dept Polit Sci Atlanta GA 30322 USA

In a principal-agent relationship, how should principals budget time for oversight when oversight activity is not instantaneous? We develop a formal model of resource allocation by a principal monitoring multiple agents, where the principal faces a dynamic budgeting problem. Our model reveals a tension between the value of holding resources in reserve to maintain the threat of an audit and the direct policy gains of monitoring activity. We show that as the frequency of principal-agent conflict increases, there are some conditions under which the most effective strategy for a principal is to allocate less and less of their total time to monitoring. The model has important implications for the empirical analysis of a monitoring setting where a principal oversees multiple agents.

关键词： Compliance monitoring oversight principal-agent relationships time constraints

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Local Observability and Controllability Analysis and Enforcement in Distributed Testing With time constraints

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IEEE ACCESS 2020年 8卷 167172-167191页

作者： Lima, Bruno Faria, Joao Pascoal Hierons, Robert Univ Porto Dept Informat Engn Fac Engn P-4200465 Porto Portugal FEUP INESC TEC P-4200465 Porto Portugal Univ Sheffield Dept Comp Sci Sheffield S10 2TN S Yorkshire England

Evermore end-to-end digital services depend on the proper interoperation of multiple products, forming a distributed system, often subject to timing requirements. To ensure interoperability and the timely behavior of such systems, it is important to conduct integration tests that verify the interactions with the environment and between the system components in key scenarios. The automation of such integration tests requires that test components are also distributed, with local testers deployed close to the system components, coordinated by a central tester. Test coordination in such a test architecture is a big challenge. To address it, in this article we propose an approach based on the pre-processing of the test scenarios. We first analyze the test scenarios in order to check if conformance errors can be detected locally (local observability) and test inputs can be decided locally (local controllability) by the local testers for the test scenario under consideration, without the need for exchanging coordination messages between the test components during test execution. If such properties do not hold, we next try to determine a minimum set of coordination messages or time constraints to be attached to the given test scenario to enforce those properties and effectively solve the test coordination problem with minimal overhead. The analysis and enforcement procedures were implemented in the DCO Analyzer tool for test scenarios described by means of UML sequence diagrams. Since many local observability and controllability problems may be caused by design flaws or incomplete specifications, and multiple ways may exist to enforce local observability and controllability, the tool was designed as a static analysis assistant to be used before test execution. DCO Analyzer was able to correctly identify local observability and controllability problems in real-world scenarios and help the users fix the detected problems.

关键词： Observability Controllability time factors Testing Unified modeling language Tools Analytical models Test scenarios observability controllability distributed systems time constraints

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I'll have to drive there: How daily time constraints impact women's car use differently than men's

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TRANSPORTATION 2020年第3期47卷 1365-1392页

作者： Shirgaokar, Manish Lanyi-Bennett, Kelly Univ Alberta Sch Urban & Reg Planning Dept Earth & Atmospher Sci 1-26 Earth Sci Bldg Edmonton AB T6G 2E3 Canada Univ Alberta Edmonton AB Canada

Women, compared to men, spend more time on home-serving tasks. This might leave women with less time for other activities including daily travel, which can further limit their travel choices. Though the impacts of gender and family structure on work and non-work travel have been investigated, daily time constraints and their implications for travel are less well understood. We address this gap by employing mixed-methods. In the first phase, we use non-probabilistic purposive sampling and conduct focus groups to explore how professional women and men think about daily time use in relation to transportation choices. In the second phase, we rely on Canada's 2015 General Social Survey (Cycle 29: time use) and use daily time spent driving or riding as a passenger in an automobile as outcome variables. We specify weighted robust regression models to examine differences by gender using six sets of controls, namely, individual characteristics, household attributes, full-day time use profile, travel, and location factors. Our findings confirm that women spend more time than men on home-serving tasks including shopping and taking care of children/other adults. When we compare women and men who spend the same hours per day in paid work/getting an education, holding everything else constant, women spend more time driving. This research underscores the importance of gendered travel in relation to policies such as flex time and transportation options for complex trip making.

关键词： Automobile use Full-day time use Gender Mixed methods time constraints Travel time budget

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Stabilization of linear impulsive systems under dwell-time constraints: Interval observer-based framework

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EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF CONTROL 2018年第Jul.期42卷 1-14页

作者： Degue, Kwassi H. Efimov, Denis Richard, Jean-Pierre INRIA Non A Team Parc Sci Haute Borne40 Av Halley F-59650 Villeneuve Dascq France Ecole Cent Lille CRIStAL UMR CNRS 9189 BP 48 F-59651 Villeneuve Dascq France Polytech Montreal Dept Elect Engn Montreal PQ H3T 1J4 Canada Gerad Montreal PQ H3T 1J4 Canada St Petersburg State Univ Informat Technol Mech & Dept Control Syst & Informat 49 Kronverkskiy Av St Petersburg 197101 Russia

The problem of interval observer design is studied for a class of linear impulsive systems. Ranged and minimum dwell-time constraints are considered under detectability assumption. The first contribution of this paper lies in designing interval observers for linear impulsive systems under ranged and minimum dwell-time constraints, and investigating positivity of the estimation error dynamics in addition to stability. Several observers are designed oriented on different conditions of positivity and stability for estimation error dynamics. The boundedness of the estimation error (input-to-state stability property) and the observer stability conditions are stated as infinite-dimensional linear programming problems. Next, an output stabilizing feedback design problem is discussed, where the stability is checked using linear matrix inequalities (LMIs). Efficiency of the proposed approach is demonstrated by computer simulations for a commercial electric vehicle equipped with a low power range extender fuel cell, a bouncing ball, an academic linear impulsive system and for Fault Detection and Isolation (FDI) and Fault-Tolerant Control (FTC) of a power split device with clutch for heavy-duty military vehicles. (C) 2018 European Control Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

关键词： time constraints Estimation error Defect detection Impulsiveness Linear system

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Predator-induced life-history plasticity under time constraints in pool frogs

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ECOLOGY 2002年第9期83卷 2542-2551页

作者： Altwegg, R Univ Zurich Inst Zool CH-8057 Zurich Switzerland

The mere presence of predators often decreases the growth rate of prey individuals, which devote energy and time to predator avoidance mechanisms. However, if time constraints are present, the prey individuals might be forced to neglect predators in order to grow faster. Amphibian larvae lower their activity when exposed to predators, which increases their survival probability but lowers their growth rate. I investigated how time constraints affect the growth strategies of pool frogs (Rana lessonae) in the presence and absence of caged (i.e., nonlethal) predators, and what the consequences are for their survival during the larval and the subsequent terrestrial life stage. In two outdoor experiments, I limited the available development time by delaying the hatching date, and by simulating pond drying. Tadpoles whose hatching date was experimentally delayed reduced their development and their activity less in the presence of predators than did control tadpoles. The survival consequences of caged predators was similar for early- and late-hatched tadpoles. Tadpoles exposed to failing water level increased their developmental rate compared to constant-water-level controls. In response to predators, however, tadpoles decreased activity and developmental rate, regardless of the water level treatment. Survival in treatments combining fast drying and caged predators was lower than in the other treatments These results suggest that time constraints critically affect the role of predators in the life history of pool frogs and might change the relative importance of lethal and nonlethal predator effects on their population dynamics.

关键词： Anax imperator anura complex life cycles, life history, metamorphosis phenotypic plasticity pond drying, Rana lessonae seasonality, terrestrial juvenile frog time constraints

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Quantifying behavioural priorities-effects of time constraints on behaviour of dairy cows, Bos taurus

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APPLIED ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR SCIENCE 2005年第1-2期92卷 3-14页

作者： Munksgaard, L Jensen, MB Pedersen, LJ Hansen, SW Matthews, L Danish Inst Agr Sci Res Ctr Foulum Dept Anim Hlth & Welf DK-8830 Tjele Denmark Ruakura Agr Res Ctr Hamilton New Zealand

In order to quantify the relative priorities between lying, eating and social behaviour of dairy cows in different stages of lactation, responses to time constraints were investigated in two experiments. In experiment one, 48 dairy cows, half in early and half in late lactation, had free access to lying, eating and social contact in a resource pen for 23 h (2 x 11.5), 15 h (2 x 7.5) or 12 h (2 x 6) a day. Rest of the day, the cows were deprived of eating, lying and social contact. In experiment two, we examined whether the time constraint on eating alone affected feed intake and eating behaviour using 32 cows kept in tie-stalls, half in early and half in late lactation. Half of the cows had free access to feed for 24 h a day and the other half had access to feed for 12 h a day. Reducing the time with free access to the resources reduced the time spent on all behaviours measured, but the proportion of time spent lying increased while the proportion of eating and social behaviour remained constant. Speed of feed intake was increased when the time budget was reduced;thus, the relative reduction in feed intake was less than the relative reduction in eating time. time constraints on access to feed alone did not reduce feed intake. Stage of lactation did not affect the relative priorities between behaviours. In conclusion, lying time had higher priority than eating time and social contact in both early and late lactation, and cows compensated to some extent for a reduction in eating time by increasing the rate of feed intake. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： cows behavioural priority time constraints

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