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The development of the SNARC effect: Evidence for early verbal coding

JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2012年第4期111卷 671-680页

作者： Imbo, Ineke De Brauwer, Jolien Fias, Wim Gevers, Wim Univ Ghent Dept Expt Psychol B-9000 Ghent Belgium Lessius Univ Coll Expertise Ctr CODE B-2018 Antwerp Belgium Univ Libre Bruxelles Unite Rech & Neurosci Cognit B-1000 Brussels Belgium

In a recent study, Gevers and colleagues (2010, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol. 139, pp. 180-190) showed that the SNARC (spatial numerical association of response codes) effect in adults results not only from spatial coding of magnitude (e.g., mental number line hypothesis) but also from verbal coding. Because children are surrounded by rulers, number lines, and the like in the classroom, it is intuitively appealing to assume that they first use their mental number line to represent numbers and that only later in development a verbal recoding of magnitude information takes place. However, this hypothesis has never been tested. The goal of the current study was to define the developmental pattern of both accounts (spatial and verbal) in explaining the SNARC effect. To this end, 9- and 11-year-olds were tested in a magnitude comparison task. Surprisingly, clear and robust evidence for verbal coding of magnitude information was observed in both age groups. Our results imply that the ability to use verbal coding of magnitude information is robustly present early in formal schooling. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： SNARC effect Cognitive development Magnitude comparison Numerical cognition Spatial coding verbal coding

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Orientation perception in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

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ANIMAL COGNITION 2008年第3期11卷 535-545页

作者： Wakita, Masumi Kyoto Univ Primate Res Inst Dept Behav & Brain Sci Aichi 4848506 Japan

It was previously demonstrated that monkeys divide the orientation continuum into cardinal and oblique categories. However, it is still unclear how monkeys perceive within-category orientations. To better understand monkeys' perception of orientation, two experiments were conducted using five monkeys. In experiment 1, they were trained to identify either one cardinal or one oblique target orientation out of six orientations. The results showed that they readily identified the cardinal target whether it was oriented horizontally or vertically. However, a longer training period was needed to identify the oblique target orientation regardless of its degree and direction of tilt. In experiment 2, the same monkeys were trained to identify two-oblique target orientations out of six orientations. These orientations were paired, either sharing the degree of tilt, direction of tilt, or neither property. The results showed that the monkeys readily identified oblique orientations when they had either the same degree or direction of tilt. However, when the target orientations had neither the same degree nor direction of tilt, the animals had difficulty in identifying them. In summary, horizontal and vertical orientations are individually processed, indicating that monkeys do not have a category for cardinal orientation, but they may recognize cardinal orientations as non-obliques. In addition, monkeys efficiently abstract either the degree or the direction of tilt from oblique orientations, but they have difficulty combining these features to identify an oblique orientation. Thus, not all orientations within the oblique category are equally perceived.

关键词： category monkey orientation verbal coding

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THE ESTIMATION OF DISTANCE AND DIRECTION FROM COGNITIVE MAPS

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AMERICAN CARTOGRAPHER 1989年第2期16卷 109-122页

作者： LLOYD, R UNIV S CAROLINA DEPT GEOGCOLUMBIASC 29208 USA

Theories to explain errors in cognitive maps typically have been related to characteristics of environments and cognitive mappers. Other sources of error are the processes used to learn and recall spatial information. This study investigated the effect of encoding and decoding processes on errors in cognitive maps when spatial knowledge was acquired only from a cartographic map. Subjects estimated distances and directions for routes on a map of a hypothetical environment that was part urban and part rural, while looking at the map and from memory. Memory groups acquired the spatial information by writing verbal directions for traversing routes and by sketching routes. Subjects who looked at the map to make their estimates were faster and more accurate than memory subjects. The memory subjects overestimated shorter distances and underestimated longer distances. Perception subjects consistently overestimated distances. Perception subjects and memory subjects appeared to be using different cognitive processes to make some estimates. Subjects generally took longer and were less accurate when making estimations for urban routes compared to rural routes. This would appear to be caused by the turns, cross streets and additional verbal information associated with the urban part of the map.

关键词： COGNITIVE MAP VISUAL coding verbal coding IMPLICIT SCALING MODEL

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Word length effects on pictorial memory encoding in 5-to 7-year-old children: An eye-tracking study

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2020年 55卷

作者： Ness, Torunn Johansson, Roger Psouni, Elia Lund Univ Dept Psychol POB 213 SE-22100 Lund Sweden

How speech coding is used for visual material is critical to understanding the link between language and memory development. Using eye-tracking, the present study examined whether the number of syllables of pictured objects' names, monosyllabic versus multisyllabic, predicts looking time at the stimuli-objects in the context of a memory task, thereby indicating verbal recoding. The children's (N = 39, ages 5-7 years) language ability was also considered. Younger children (5;1-6;3 years) did not appear to sub-vocally recode the verbal labels of visual stimuli during encoding, whereas older children (6;4-7;3 years) who were already attending elementary school looked longer at objects with multisyllabic labels. Notably, it was primarily the less verbally competent among those children who contributed to the effect. Thus, our results demonstrate, for the first time, that young children's sub-vocal verbal processing when trying to memorize visual stimuli may be contingent upon verbal competence.

关键词： verbal coding Implicit labelling Eye tracking Word-Length effect Language ability

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Celebratory expressions and linguistic diversity: investigating congratulation patterns among Pakistani Facebook users commenting in English and Urdu

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COGENT ARTS & HUMANITIES 2024年第1期11卷

作者： Saleem, Aisha Yasmin, Musarat Univ Gujrat Dept English Gujrat Pakistan

This study explores verbal and nonverbal congratulatory responses in the context of joyful Facebook status updates in Pakistani English and Urdu. Employing Terkourafi's frame-based approach, quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted on 16,165 comments and 16,230 emoji reactions from 140 Pakistani users. Elwood's taxonomy and Allami and Pishghadam's refined framework were used for verbal coding, while nonverbal data followed Facebook's algorithm guidelines and Dresner and Herring's framework. The findings reveal users' adept expression of happiness and convivial emotions, showcasing significant language adaptation to cultural norms, especially with the prevalence of English. Pakistani users employ various congratulatory techniques, emphasizing the role of illocutionary force-indicating devices (IFID) in reinforcing positive self-image and commending success. Nonverbal elements, primarily emojis, play a crucial role in Pakistani conversations, signaling speech genres, defining social relationships and negotiating social purposes. The study suggests that future research should explore the longitudinal evolution of emoticons, investigating their potential conventionalization and transformation into established textual markers and providing insights into their linguistic and cultural significance in digital interactions.

关键词： Congratulatory responses emoji reactions illocutionary force-Indicating devices (IFID) nonverbal elements verbal coding Jeroen van de Weijer College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, China Education - Social Sciences Language and Linguistics Literature

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Visual working memory is enhanced by mixed strategy use and semantic coding

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JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2013年第3期25卷 328-338页

作者： Brown, Louise A. Wesley, Robert W. Nottingham Trent Univ Div Psychol Nottingham NG1 4BU England

Visual working memory is enhanced by processes related to verbalisation. However, the mechanism underlying this enhancement is unclear. Experiment 1 investigated the potential contribution of the phonological loop of working memory, by assessing the effects of articulatory suppression on two versions of the Visual Patterns Testone low and one high in availability of verbal coding. The lack of interaction suggested that the phonological loop is not responsible;however, active use of combined verbal and visual strategies, as well as activated semantic knowledge, both appear to be related to increased capacity. Experiment 2 assessed the role of central executive resources. Because central executive suppression removed the benefit of the high verbal coding task version, central executive resources, assumed to relate to the temporary maintenance of multimodal codes in the episodic buffer, appear to underlie the benefit associated with verbalisation.

关键词： Central executive Episodic buffer Semantic long-term memory verbal coding Visual working memory Visuospatial

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