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Automating Comment Generation for Smart Contract from bytecode

ACM TRANSACTIONS ON SOFTWARE ENGINEERING AND METHODOLOGY 2025年第3期34卷 1-31页

作者： Xiang, Jianhang Gao, Zhipeng Bao, Lingfeng Hu, Xing Chen, Jiayuan Xia, Xin Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Blockchain & Data Secur Hangzhou Peoples R China Zhejiang Univ State Key Lab Blockchain & Data Secur Shanghai Peoples R China Hangzhou High Tech Zone Binjiang Blockchain & Data Hangzhou Peoples R China Ohio State Univ Columbus OH USA

Recently, smart contracts have played a vital role in automatic financial and business transactions. To help end users without programming background to better understand the logic of smart contracts, previous studies have proposed models for automatically translating smart contract source code into their corresponding code summaries. However, in practice, only 13% of smart contracts deployed on the Ethereum blockchain are associated with source code. The practical usage of these existing tools is significantly restricted. Considering that bytecode is always necessary when deploying smart contracts, in this article, we first introduce the task of automatically generating smart contract code summaries from bytecode. We propose a novel approach, named Smart Contract bytecode Translator (SMARTBT) for automatically translating smart contract bytecode into fine-grained natural language description directly. Two key challenges are posed for this task: structural code logic hidden in bytecode and the huge semantic gap between bytecode and natural language descriptions. To address the first challenge, we transform bytecode into Control-Flow Graph (CFG) to learn code structural and logic details. Regarding the second challenge, we introduce an information retrieval component to fetch similar comments for filling the semantic gap. Then, the structural input and semantic input are used to build an attentional sequence-to-sequence neural network model. The copy mechanism is employed to copy rare words directly from similar comments, and the coverage mechanism is employed to eliminate repetitive outputs. The automatic evaluation results show that SMARTBT outperforms a set of baselines by a large margin, and the human evaluation results show the effectiveness and potential of SMARTBT in producing meaningful and accurate comments for smart contract code from bytecode directly.

关键词： Smart Contract bytecode Automatic Comment Generation

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An alternative to code comment generation? Generating comment from bytecode

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INFORMATION AND SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGY 2025年 179卷

作者： Chen, Xiangping Chen, Junqi Lian, Zhilu Huang, Yuan Zhou, Xiaocong Wu, Yunzhi Zheng, Zibin Sun Yat Sen Univ Sch Software Engn Zhuhai Peoples R China Sun Yat Sen Univ Sch Journalism & Commun Guangzhou Peoples R China Sun Yat Sen Univ Guangzhou Peoples R China Sch Comp Sci & Engn Guangzhou Peoples R China Guangzhou Modern Informat Engn Coll Sch Econ & Management Guangzhou Peoples R China

Context: Due to the importance and necessity of code comments, recent works propose many comment generation models with source code as input. But sometimes there has no access to obtain the source code, only the bytecode, such as many Apps. Objective: If there is away to generate comments for bytecode directly, tasks such as malware detection and understanding closed-source software can benefit from the generated comment because it improves the understandability of the system. Therefore, we propose a novel approach called ByteGen to generate comments from bytecode. Methods: Specifically, to extract the structure characteristic of the bytecode, we utilize the control flow graph (CFG) of the bytecode and use a special traversal named enhanced SBT to serialize CFG. The enhanced SBT can completely preserve the structure of the CFG in a sequence. We set up experiments on a dataset with a scale of about 50,000 bytecode-comment pairs collected from Maven. Results: Experimental results show that the average BLEU-4 score of ByteGen is 28.67, which outperforms several baselines, and a human study also indicates the effectiveness of ByteGen in generating comments from bytecodes. Conclusion: In general, ByteGen performs better than other baselines. Therefore, this also proves the effectiveness of our approach in the code comment generation scenario without source code.

关键词： Code comment Comment generation bytecode Source code unavailable

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bytecode Analysis for Proof Carrying Code

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ELECTRONIC NOTES IN THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE 2005年第1期141卷 19-34页

作者： Wildmoser, Martin Chaieb, Amine Nipkow, Tobias Tech Univ Munich Inst Informat Munich Germany

Out of annotated programs proof carrying code systems construct and prove verification conditions that guarantee a given safety policy. The annotations may come from various program analyzers and must not be trusted as they need to be verified. A generic verification condition generator can be utilized such that a combination of annotations is verified incrementally. New annotations may be verified by using previously verified ones as trusted facts. We show how results from a trusted type analyzer may be combined with untrusted interval analysis to automatically verify that bytecode programs do not overflow. All trusted components are formalized and verified in Isabelle/HOL.

关键词： Proof carrying code bytecode safety policy type analyzer Isabelle/HOL

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bytecode Heuristic Signatures for Detecting Malware Behavior 2

Bytecode Heuristic Signatures for Detecting Malware Behavior

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2nd International Conference on Next Generation Computing Applications (NextComp)

作者： Hajmasan, Gheorghe Mondoc, Alexandra Cret, Octavian Tech Univ Cluj Napoca Bitdefender Cluj Napoca Romania Babes Bolyai Univ Bitdefender Cluj Napoca Romania Tech Univ Cluj Napoca Cluj Napoca Romania

ISBN: (纸本)9781728114606

For a long time, the most important approach for detecting malicious applications was the use of static, hash-based signatures. This approach provides a fast response time, has a low performance overhead and is very stable due to its simplicity. However, with the rapid growth in the number of malware, as well as their increased complexity in terms of polymorphism and evasion, the era of reactive security solutions started to fade in favor of new, proactive approaches such as behavior based detection. We propose a novel approach that uses an interpreter virtual machine to run proactive behavior heuristics from bytecode signatures, thus combining the advantages of behavior based detection with those of signatures. Based on our approximation, using this approach we succeeded to reduce by 85% the time required to update a behavior based detection solution to detect new threats, while continuing to benefit from the versatility of behavior heuristics.

关键词： malware detection behavior bytecode signature heuristic response time

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Android malware detection method based on bytecode image

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JOURNAL OF AMBIENT INTELLIGENCE AND HUMANIZED COMPUTING 2020年第5期14卷 6401-6410页

作者： Ding, Yuxin Zhang, Xiao Hu, Jieke Xu, Wenting Harbin Inst Technol Dept Comp Sci & Technol Shenzhen Peoples R China

Traditional machine learning based malware detection methods often use decompiling techniques or dynamic monitoring techniques to extract the feature representation of malware. This procedure is time consuming and strongly depends on the skills of experts. In addition, malware can be packed or encrypted to evade the analysis of decompiling tools. To solve this issue, we propose a static detection method based on deep learning. We directly extract bytecode file from Android APK file, and convert the bytecode file into a two-dimensional bytecode matrix, then use the deep learning algorithm, convolution neural network (CNN), to train a detection model and apply it to classify malware. CNN can automatically learn features of bytecode file which can be used to recognize malware. The proposed detection model avoids the procedure for analyzing malware features and designing the feature representation of malware. The experimental results show the proposed method is effective to detect malware, especially malware encrypted using polymorphic techniques.

关键词： Convolutional neural network Malware Android Binary data bytecode

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JBInsTrace: A tracer of Java and JRE classes at basic-block granularity by dynamically instrumenting bytecode

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SCIENCE OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING 2014年 79卷 116-125页

作者： Caserta, Pierre Zendra, Olivier LORIA Campus Sci F-54603 Villers Les Nancy France INRIA Nancy Grand Est LORIA F-54603 Villers Les Nancy France

Understanding what happens during the runtime of a Java program is difficult. Tracking runtime flow can bring valuable information for program understanding and behavior analysis. Polymorphism, thread concurrency or even simple facts like the number of method invocations and the number of executed bytecodes are valuable information to track, but are difficult to compute outside the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) on running programs. In this paper, we present JBInsTrace, a new tool that instruments and traces Java bytecode. It produces static information about source code and a very fine grained trace of Java software execution, combining them to allow detailed analysis of the runtime. Our tool differs from others because it does not only trace program classes but also IRE classes, and does so at basic block level, without altering the JVM and without statically modifying class files. We explain JBInsTrace design, focused towards efficiency, which results in reasonable performance penalty. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： Java Tracing Dynamic bytecode Instrumentation Profiling Program analysis

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A type system for Java bytecode subroutines

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ACM TRANSACTIONS ON PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND SYSTEMS 1999年第1期21卷 90-137页

作者： Stata, R Abadi, M Digital Equipment Corp Syst Res Ctr Palo Alto CA 94301 USA

Java is typically compiled into an intermediate language, JVML, that is interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine. Because mobile JVML code is not always trusted, a bytecode verifier enforces static constraints that prevent Various dynamic errors. Given the importance of the bytecode verifier for security, its current descriptions are inadequate. This article proposes using typing rules to describe the bytecode verifier because they are more precise than prose, clearer than code, and easier to reason about than either. JVML has a subroutine construct which is used for the compilation of Java's try-finally statement. Subroutines are a major source of complexity for the bytecode verifier because they are not obviously last-in/first-out and because they require a kind of polymorphism. Focusing on subroutines, we isolate an interesting, small subset of JVML. We give typing rules for this subset and prove their correctness. Our type system constitutes a sound basis for bytecode verification and a rational reconstruction of a delicate part of Sun's bytecode verifier.

关键词： languages security theory verification bytecode verification Java

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Coverage-Based Debloating for Java bytecode

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ACM TRANSACTIONS ON SOFTWARE ENGINEERING AND METHODOLOGY 2023年第2期32卷 1-34页

作者： Soto-Valero, Cesar Durieux, Thomas Harrand, Nicolas Baudry, Benoit KTH Royal Inst Technol Dept Software & Comp Syst Stockholm Sweden

Software bloat is code that is packaged in an application but is actually not necessary to run the application. The presence of software bloat is an issue for security, performance, and for maintenance. In this article, we introduce a novel technique for debloating, which we call coverage-based debloating. We implement the technique for one single language: Java bytecode. We leverage a combination of state-of-the-art Java bytecode coverage tools to precisely capture what parts of a project and its dependencies are used when running with a specific workload. Then, we automatically remove the parts that are not covered, in order to generate a debloated version of the project. We succeed to debloat 211 library versions from a dataset of 94 unique opensource Java libraries. The debloated versions are syntactically correct and preserve their original behaviour according to the workload. Our results indicate that 68.3 % of the libraries' bytecode and 20.3 % of their total dependencies can be removed through coverage-based debloating. For the first time in the literature on software debloating, we assess the utility of debloated libraries with respect to client applications that reuse them. We select 988 client projects that either have a direct reference to the debloated library in their source code or which test suite covers at least one class of the libraries that we debloat. Our results show that 81.5 % of the clients, with at least one test that uses the library, successfully compile and pass their test suite when the original library is replaced by its debloated version.

关键词： Software bloat code coverage program specialization bytecode software maintenance

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BCGen: a comment generation method for bytecode

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AUTOMATED SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 2023年第1期30卷 1-31页

作者： Huang, Yuan Huang, Jinbo Chen, Xiangping He, Kunning Zhou, Xiaocong Sun Yat Sen Univ Sch Software Engn Zhuhai 519000 Guangdong Peoples R China Sun Yat Sen Univ Sch Journalism & Commun Guangdong Key Lab Big Data Anal & Simulat Publ Opi Guangzhou 510000 Guangdong Peoples R China Sun Yat Sen Univ Sch Comp Sci & Engn Guangzhou 510000 Guangdong Peoples R China

bytecode is a form of instruction set designed for efficient execution by a software interpreter. Unlike human-readable source code, bytecode is even harder to understand for programmers and researchers. bytecode has been widely used in various software tasks such as malware detection and clone detection. In order to understand the meaning of the bytecode more quickly and accurately and further help programmers in more software activities, we propose a bytecode comment generation method (called BCGen) using neural language model. Specifically, to get the structured information of the bytecode, we first generate the control flow graph (CFG) of the bytecode, and serialize the CFG with bytecode semantic information. Then a transformer model combining gate recurrent unit is proposed to learn the features of bytecode to generate comments. We obtain the bytecode by building the Jar packages of the well-known open-source projects in the Maven repository and construct a bytecode dataset to train and evaluate our model. Experimental results show that the BLEU of BCGen can reach 0.26, which outperforms several baselines and proves the effectiveness and practicability of our method. It is concluded that it is possible to generate natural language comments directly from the bytecode. Meanwhile, it is important to take structured and semantic information into account in generating bytecode comments.

关键词： bytecode Comments generation Control flow graph Program comprehension

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bytecode Generation for XQuery Compiler

Bytecode Generation for XQuery Compiler

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1st International Workshop on Database Technology and Applications

作者： Chen, Yue Yuan, Fei Liao, Husheng Beijing Univ Technol Coll Comp Sci Beijing Peoples R China

ISBN: (纸本)9780769536040

This paper represents a compiler for XQuery that obtains a more efficient performance by translating its programs to Java bytecode. It gives an overview of the system design with multi-phase translation structure, and describes the translation algorithm in detail. According to the result of performance experiments, running programs in Java bytecodes generated by the compiler have better performance than the interpretation of their source programs.

关键词： XQuery compiling bytecode

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