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Extended version: enabling lattice-based post-quantum cryptography on the opentitan platform

JOURNAL OF CRYPTOGRAPHIC ENGINEERING 2025年第2期15卷 1-23页

作者： Stelzer, Tobias Oberhansl, Felix Schupp, Jonas Karl, Patrick Turcuman, Horia Fraunhofer AISEC Garching Germany Tech Univ Munich TUM Sch Computat Informat & Technol Munich Germany

The first generation of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is just around the corner. The need for secure implementations is therefore increasing. In this work, we address this need and investigate the integration of lattice-based PQC into an open-source silicon root of trust (RoT), the OpenTitan. RoTs are important security building blocks that need to be future-proofed with PQC. The OpenTitan features multiple cryptographic hardware accelerators and countermeasures against physical attacks, but does not offer dedicated support for lattice-based PQC. Thus, we propose instruction set extensions for the OpenTitan Big Number Accelerator (OTBN) to improve the efficiency of polynomial arithmetic and sampling. As a case study we analyze the performance of signature verification of the digital signature schemes Dilithium and Falcon. Our implementation verifies signatures within 911,366 cycles for Dilithium-II and 759,779 cycles for Falcon-512, pushing this RoT functionality below 10 ms for the OpenTitan's target frequency of 100 MHz. In case of Dilithium-II, this can not be achieved without these hardware extensions, even for advanced implementation techniques such as Kronecker+. With an overhead of 437,665.00 kGE, our hardware extensions make up only about 2.93 % of the total RoT area. All our extensions integrate seamlessly with countermeasures against physical attacks which are already available within the OTBN and comply with the adversary model chosen by the OpenTitan project.

关键词： Post-quantum cryptography lattice-based cryptography Digital signatures Hardware/software co-design

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Efficient Partially-parallel NTT Processor for lattice-based Post-quantum cryptography

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JOURNAL OF SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE 2022年第6期22卷 459-474页

作者： Choi, Soyeon Shin, Yerin Lim, Kiho Yoo, Hoyoung Chungnam Natl Univ Dept Elect Engn Daejeon 34134 South Korea LX Semicon Daejeon 34027 South Korea William Paterson Univ New Jersey Wayne NJ 07470 USA

This paper presents a partially-parallel number theoretic transform (NTT) processor design for polynomial multipliers, which is a key component of a lattice-based cryptography. Since the data flow of NTT is similar to that of FFT, studies have been conducted to apply the FFT structure to fit the NTT structure. However, the previous architectures suffer from high hardware complexity and low throughput. Thus, we propose a new partially-parallel design that models the data reordering process and derives a generalized data reordering circuit. The proposed partially parallel design solved the problem of the previous architectures. Moreover, it provides imp-roved performance through efficient data reordering. Synthesis results shows that the proposed 8-parallel 512-point NTT processor achieves 15% to 76% improvements in terms of hardware efficiency compared to the previous architectures. As a result, the proposed NTT processor is a good solution in a more diversified lattice-based crypto-processor with constrained usage conditions.

关键词： lattice-based cryptography number theoretic transform polynomial multiplier post-quantum crypto-processer

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Scabbard: An Exploratory Study on Hardware Aware Design Choices of Learning with Rounding-based Key Encapsulation Mechanisms

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ACM TRANSACTIONS ON EMBEDDED COMPUTING SYSTEMS 2025年第1期24卷 1-40页

作者： Kundu, Suparna TEN Norga, Quin Karmakar, Angsh uman Gangopadh, Shreya Mera, Jose maria bermudo Whede, Ingrid verbau Katholieke Univ Leuven COSIC Dept Rehabil Sci Leuven Flemish Brabant Belgium Indian Inst Technol Kanpur Comp Sci & Engn Kanpur Uttar Pradesh India IIT KHARAGPUR Kharagpur W Bengal India PQShield Oxford England

Recently, the construction of cryptographic schemes based on hard lattice problems has gained immense popularity. Apart from being quantum resistant, lattice-based cryptography allows a wide range of variations in the underlying hard problem. As cryptographic schemes can work in different environments under different operational constraints such as memory footprint, silicon area, efficiency, power requirement, and so on, such variations in the underlying hard problem are very useful for designers to construct different cryptographic schemes. In this work, we explore various design choices of lattice-based cryptography and their impact on performance in the real world. In particular, we propose a suite of key-encapsulation mechanisms based on the learning with rounding problem with a focus on improving different performance aspects of lattice-based cryptography. Our suite consists of three schemes. Our first scheme is Florete, which is designed for efficiency. The second scheme is Espada, which is aimed at improving parallelization, flexibility, and memory footprint. The last scheme is Sable, which can be considered an improved version in terms of key sizes and parameters of the Saber key-encapsulation mechanism, one of the finalists in the National Institute of Standards and Technology's post-quantum standardization procedure. In this work, we have described our design rationale behind each scheme. Furthermore, to demonstrate the justification of our design decisions, we have provided software and hardware implementations. Our results show Florete is faster than most state-of-the-art KEMs on software platforms. For example, the key-generation algorithm of high-security version Florete outperforms the National Institute of Standards and Technology's standard Kyber by 47%, the Federal Office for Information Security's standard Frodo by 99%, and Saber by 57% on the ARM Cortex-M4 platform. Similarly, in hardware, Florete outperforms Frodo and NTRU Prime for all KEM oper

关键词： Post-quantum cryptography lattice-based cryptography learning with rounding key-encapsulation mechanism software implementations AVX2 Cortex-M4 hardware implementations FPGA

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Quantum Safe Multi-Factor User Authentication Protocol for Cloud-Assisted Medical IoT

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IEEE ACCESS 2025年 13卷 3532-3545页

作者： Ahmad, Arman Jagatheswari, S. Vellore Inst Technol Sch Adv Sci Dept Math Vellore 632014 Tamil Nadu India

The Medical Internet of Things (MIoT) plays a pivotal role in modern healthcare by integrating wireless communication and cloud computing to enhance medical practices. However, this framework presents security vulnerabilities, such as the risk of eavesdroppers exploiting public channels to intercept sensitive patient data or impersonate legitimate devices and services. Consequently, authentication between wearable devices and servers is essential before transmitting confidential information through open channels. While several authentication techniques offer protection against quantum attacks, they often incur high communication and computation costs, underscoring the need for further advancement. This paper introduces a multifactor authentication protocol designed to strengthen the integrity of cloud-assisted MIoT systems by incorporating post-quantum security. The proposed protocol utilizes a post-quantum fuzzy commitment (PQFC) scheme to enhance security and is rigorously analyzed under the random oracle model and ProVerif tool. Its functionality and security are thoroughly assessed, demonstrating adherence to key requirements such as memoryless operation, user anonymity, mutual authentication, and resistance to various threats, including biometric tampering, stolen-verifier attacks, and insider attacks. Additionally, a comprehensive comparison with existing schemes highlights a balanced trade-off between security and efficiency.

关键词： Authentication Security Protocols Cloud computing Biometrics cryptography Vectors Passwords Elliptic curve cryptography Quantum computing Medical IoT authentication lattice-based cryptography post-quantum security key agreement

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lattice-based Zero-Knowledge Proofs in Action: Applications to Electronic Voting

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JOURNAL OF CRYPTOLOGY 2025年第1期38卷 1-33页

作者： Farzaliyev, Valeh Parn, Calvin Saarse, Heleen Willemson, Jan Cybernet AS Narva Mnt 20 EE-51009 Tartu Estonia Tartu Univ Inst Comp Sci Narva mnt 18 EE-51009 Tartu Estonia Tartu Univ Inst Math & Stat Narva Mnt 18 EE-51009 Tartu Estonia

This paper studies several building blocks needed for electronic voting in order to prepare for the post-quantum era. In particular, we present lattice-based constructions for a generic zero-knowledge (ZK) proof of ballot correctness, a ZK proof of ballot correctness applicable for the homomorphic tallying scenario, and a ZK proof to achieve cast-as-intended verification during the vote casting period. We implement and benchmark our ballot correctness proofs, giving concrete estimations comparing the performance of homomorphic tallying and mix-net based e-voting systems in case of our lattice-based constructions.

关键词： lattice-based cryptography Zero-knowledge proofs Electronic voting

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Enabling lattice-based Post-Quantum cryptography on the OpenTitan Platform 7

Enabling Lattice-Based Post-Quantum Cryptography on the Open...

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7th Workshop on Attacks and Solutions in Hardware Security (ASHES)

作者： Stelzer, Tobias Oberhansl, Felix Schupp, Jonas Karl, Patrick Fraunhofer AISEC Garching Germany Tech Univ Munich Munich Germany TUM Sch Computat Informat & Technol Munich Germany

ISBN: (纸本)9798400702624

The first generation of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is just around the corner. The need for secure implementations is therefore increasing. In this work, we address this need and investigate the integration of lattice-based PQC into an open-source silicon root of trust (RoT), the OpenTitan. RoTs are important security building blocks that need to be future-proofed with PQC. The OpenTitan features multiple cryptographic hardware accelerators and countermeasures against physical attacks, but does not offer dedicated support for lattice-based PQC. Thus, we propose instruction set extensions for the OpenTitan Big Number Accelerator (OTBN) to improve the efficiency of polynomial arithmetic and sampling. As a case study we analyze the performance of signature verification of digital signature scheme Dilithium. Our implementation verifies signatures within 997,722 cycles for security level II, pushing this RoT functionality below 10 ms for the OpenTitan's target frequency of 100 MHz. With an overhead of 242 kGE, our hardware extensions make up only about 5 % of the total RoT area. All our extensions integrate seamlessly with countermeasures against physical attacks and comply with the adversary model chosen by the OpenTitan project.

关键词： post-quantum cryptography lattice-based cryptography digital signatures hardware/software co-design

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Blockchain based lightweight authentication scheme for internet of things using lattice encryption algorithm

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COMPUTER STANDARDS & INTERFACES 2025年 93卷

作者： Kuang, Yingpan Wu, Qiwen Chen, Riqing Liu, Xiaolong Fujian Agr & Forestry Univ Coll Comp & Informat Sci Fuzhou 350002 Peoples R China Fujian Agr & Forestry Univ Ctr Agroforestry Mega Data Sci Sch Future Technol Fuzhou 350002 Peoples R China

With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), robust and secure authentication among interconnected devices has become increasingly significant. Existing cryptographic methods, despite their effectiveness, face challenges in scalability, quantum vulnerability, and high computational demands, which are particularly problematic for resource-constrained IoT devices. This paper proposes a novel and lightweight authentication scheme for IoT devices that combines the decentralization of blockchain with the efficiency of lattice-based cryptography to address these security concerns. The proposed scheme employs a decentralized identity management model built on blockchain, eliminating vulnerable central points and enhancing system resilience. For user and device authentication, an efficient lattice-based protocol is introduced, utilizing simplified hash operations and matrix-vector multiplication for key negotiation and authentication. This approach significantly reduces both computational complexity and communication overhead compared to traditional methods such as ECC-based schemes. Specifically, at a 100-bit security level, our scheme achieves authentication and key agreement in approximately 257.401 mu s and maintains a communication cost of 1052 bits per authentication session. Comprehensive performance analyses demonstrate that the proposed scheme can withstand typical cryptographic attacks and offers advantages in quantum computing resistance. Additionally, the blockchain-based design ensures high scalability, making the scheme ideal for large-scale IoT deployments without performance degradation. Experimental results further validate the scheme's practical applicability in resource-constrained IoT environments, highlighting its superior computational response times and lower communication costs compared to existing IoT authentication solutions.

关键词： Internet of things (ioT) Lightweight authentication lattice-based cryptography Blockchain

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LPbT-SSO: Password-based Threshold Single-Sign-On Authentication From LWE

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DEPENDABLE AND SECURE COMPUTING 2025年第1期22卷 491-504页

作者： Cao, Chenchen Xu, Chunxiang Jiang, Changsong Zhang, Zhao Dong, Xinfeng Chen, Kefei Univ Elect Sci & Technol China Sch Comp Sci & Engn Chengdu 611731 Peoples R China Univ Elect Sci & Technol China Yangtze Delta Reg Inst Huzhou Huzhou 313001 Peoples R China Sci & Technol Commun Secur Lab Chengdu 610041 Peoples R China Hangzhou Normal Univ Dept Math Hangzhou 310027 Peoples R China

In networks, clients access various servers. Servers need to authenticate clients' identities and provide services to clients who pass the authentication. Password-based threshold single-sign-on authentication (PbT-SSO) delegates multiple identity servers to authenticate a client with the client's password, and issue a token for subsequent access. However, existing PbT-SSO schemes are based on conventional hardness problems, which are vulnerable to adversaries equipped with quantum computers in the near future. Once quantum computers are accessible, adversaries can retrieve passwords by off-line dictionary guessing attacks (DGA) from the credentials of clients' passwords. Moreover, quantum adversaries can derive identity servers' secret from public information and further forge tokens with the secret. Motivated by these issues, we propose a password-based threshold single-sign-on authentication from learning with errors problem (LWE), dubbed LPbT-SSO, which is resistant to quantum attacks. LPbT-SSO evaluates a one-way function of passwords, and takes the function outputs as credentials. Since the function is grounded on LWE problem intractable for quantum computation, quantum adversaries cannot recover passwords by off-line DGA. Additionally, LPbT-SSO leverages a lattice-based threshold signature scheme to issue tokens, and guarantees that no adversary can forge a valid token. The comprehensive performance evaluation demonstrates that LPbT-SSO is efficient in terms of computation, storage, and communication costs.

关键词： Servers Passwords Authentication Quantum computing cryptography Computers Security Password-based threshold single-sign-on authentication dictionary guessing attacks tokens forgery attacks lattice-based cryptography learning with errors problem

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PPLBB: a novel privacy-preserving lattice-based blockchain platform in IoMT

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JOURNAL OF SUPERCOMPUTING 2025年第1期81卷 1-33页

作者： Sezer, Bora Bugra Akleylek, Sedat Ege Univ Grad Sch Nat & Appl Sci Izmir Turkiye Istinye Univ Dept Comp Engn Istanbul Turkiye Univ Tartu Inst Comp Sci Tartu Estonia

This paper proposes a quantum-secure, privacy-preserving blockchain platform for the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT). It defines a solution to quantum attacks on blockchain by integrating the Dilithium lattice-based signature scheme to enhance security and privacy. A layer-based structure, combined with the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), is used to improve the efficiency of data sharing, optimize security, and manage authentication in resource-constrained IoMT environments. Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKP) and lattice-based signatures are used for lightweight authentication and data integrity. Real-time testing on electrochemical sensor data validates the system's efficiency in securely managing IoMT communications. Additionally, event-based smart contracts (EBSC) are implemented to reduce communication costs and minimize blockchain overhead. Experimental results show that Dilithium outperforms other schemes like Falcon and ECDSA, making it a superior solution for real-time IoMT security.

关键词： Post-quantum cryptography lattice-based cryptography Digital signature schemes IoMT Privacy-preserving Blockchain

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Optimizing parameters for efficient computation with fully homomorphic encryption schemes

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TURKISH JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCES 2025年第2期33卷 106-126页

作者： Karaagac, Cavidan Yakupoglu Rohloff, Kurt Abdullah Gill Univ Dept Comp Engn TR-38039 Kayseri Turkiye New Jersey Inst Technol Ying Wu Coll Comp Dept Comp Sci Newark NJ USA

In this study, we aim to provide a parameter selection approach for the BFVrns scheme, one of the prominent fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) schemes. Selecting parameters for lattice-based FHE schemes poses a practical challenge for both experts and nonexperts. To solve this problem, we introduce a hybrid approach that combines theoretical approach with experimental analysis. First, we employ regression analysis to examine the impact of parameters on both performance and security. The varying behavior of FHE parameters in terms of performance, security, and ciphertext expansion factor (CEF) makes parameter selection more challenging. To address this issue, we employ a multi-objective optimization algorithm to determine the optimal parameter set for performance, CEF, and security simultaneously. As a result of this optimization, we obtain an improved parameter set that enhances performance at a given security level while ensuring correctness and resistance to lattice-based attacks, maintaining at least 128-bit security. Our results achieve an average similar to 5x reduction in CEF and generally better performance compared to the parameter sets in a previous BFVrns study. Our approach serves as a semi-automated parameter selection method for the PALISADE homomorphic encryption library, a widely recognized FHE library. This study sets a precedent for other FHE libraries.

关键词： lattice-based cryptography fully homomorphic encryption parameter selection learning with error problem ring learning with error problem

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