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Latent semantic analysis of game models using LSTM

JOURNAL OF LOGICAL AND ALGEBRAIC METHODS IN programming 2019年 106卷 39-54页

作者： Ghica, Dan R. Alyahya, Khulood Univ Birmingham Birmingham W Midlands England Univ Exeter Exeter Devon England King Saud Univ Riyadh Saudi Arabia

We are proposing a method for identifying whether the observed behaviour of a function at an interface is consistent with the typical behaviour of a particular programming language. This is a challenging problem with significant potential applications such as in security (intrusion detection) or compiler optimisation (profiling). To represent behaviour we use game semantics, a powerful method of semantic analysis for programming languages. It gives mathematically accurate models ('fully abstract') for a wide variety of programming languages. Game-semantic models are combinatorial characterisations of all possible interactions between a term and its syntactic context. Because such interactions can be concretely represented as sets of sequences, it is possible to ask whether they can be learned from examples. Concretely, we are using LSTM, a technique which proved effective in learning natural languages for automatic translation and text synthesis, to learn game-semantic models of sequential and concurrent versions of Idealised Algol (IA), which are algorithmically complex yet can be concisely described. We will measure how accurate the learned models are as a function of the degree of the term and the number of free variables involved. Finally, we will show how to use the learned model to perform latent semantic analysis between concurrent and sequential Idealised Algol. (C) 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： programming language semantics Game semantics Recurrent neural networks Machine learning

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Least upper bounds for probability measures and their applications to abstractions

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INFORMATION AND COMPUTATION 2014年第0期234卷 68-106页

作者： Chadha, Rohit Viswanathan, Mahesh Viswanathan, Ramesh Univ Illinois Dept Comp Sci Urbana IL 61801 USA Bell Labs Holmdel NJ 07733 USA

Least upper bounds play an important role in defining the semantics of programming languages, and in abstract interpretations. In this paper, we identify conditions on countable ordered measurable spaces that ensure the existence of least upper bounds for all sets of probability measures. These conditions are shown to be necessary as well for any measurable space not satisfying these conditions, there are (finite) sets of probability measures for which no least upper bound exists. For measurable spaces meeting these conditions, the existence of least upper bounds is established constructively. Based on this least upper bound construction, we present a novel abstraction method applicable to Discrete Time Markov Chains (DTMCs), Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), and Continuous Time Markov Chains (CTMCs). The main advantage of the new abstraction techniques is that the resulting abstract models are purely probabilistic that may be more amenable to automated analysis than models with both nondeterministic and probabilistic transitions which arise from previously known abstraction techniques. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

关键词： programming important probability automatic analysis programming Supremum Upper bound Markov chain programming language semantics Abstraction Tree graphs Measurable space

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A LAYERED, OPERATIONAL MODEL OF DATA CONTROL IN programming-languageS

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COMPUTER languageS 1991年第2期16卷 147-165页

作者： OUDSHOORN, MJ MARLIN, CD UNIV ADELAIDE CTR COMP SYST & SOFTWARE ENGNADELAIDESA 5001AUSTRALIA

This paper describes a layered model of the semantics of the data control aspect of programming languages;this aspect of programming language semantics concerns access to the data objects of the program. The model is an information structure model in which the information structures are defined in a relatively precise manner using algebraic specification techniques for abstract data types. The use of abstract data types is also the key to the layering of the description: the outermost layer describes the semantics of the language feature, the middle layer contains definitions for the manipulation of the information structures used within the model, and the innermost layer contains precise descriptions of these information structures.

关键词： DATA CONTROL programming language semantics INFORMATION STRUCTURE MODELS PASCAL

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One Down, 699 to Go: or, Synthesising Compositional Desugarings

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACM ON programming languageS-PACMPL 2021年第OOPSLA期5卷 1–29页

作者： Bartha, Sandor Cheney, James Belle, Vaishak Univ Edinburgh 10 Crichton St Edinburgh Midlothian Scotland Alan Turing Inst 96 Euston Rd London England

programming or scripting languages used in real-world systems are seldom designed with a formal semantics in mind from the outset. Therefore, developing well-founded analysis tools for these systems requires reverse-engineering a formal semantics as a first step. This can take months or years of effort. Can we (at least partially) automate this process? Though desirable, automatically reverse-engineering semantics rules from an implementation is very challenging, as found by Krishnamurthi, Lerner and Elberty. In this paper, we highlight that scaling methods with the size of the language is very difficult due to state space explosion, so we propose to learn semantics incrementally. We give a formalisation of Krishnamurthi et al.'s desugaring learning framework in order to clarify the assumptions necessary for an incremental learning algorithm to be feasible. We show that this reformulation allows us to extend the search space and express rules that Krishnamurthi et al. described as challenging, while still retaining feasibility. We evaluate enumerative synthesis as a baseline algorithm, and demonstrate that, with our reformulation of the problem, it is possible to learn correct desugaring rules for the example source and core languages proposed by Krishnamurthi et al., in most cases identical to the intended rules. In addition, with user guidance, our system was able to synthesize rules for desugaring list comprehensions and try/catch/finally constructs.

关键词： programming language semantics testing enumerative synthesis

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An operational semantics and compiler for Real-Time specifications

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INTEGRATED COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING 1998年第3期5卷 187-206页

作者： Puchol, C Stuart, DA Mok, AK Univ Texas Dept Comp Sci Austin TX 78712 USA

The Modechart specification language is a formalism for the specification and implementation of real-time systems. This paper presents the semantics for Modechart in an operational style and a compiler for automatically synthesizing specifications. Modechart adopts the synchronous model of concurrency and broadcast of events, which also assumes instantaneous response to environment inputs. The formal syntax of Modechart is introduced first, followed by the semantics for the class of deterministic specifications, followed by the definition of the non-deterministic semantics. The semantics introduced is shown to be equivalent to the original semantics defined in Real-Time Logic. We argue that the operational semantics provides a more computational approach to the semantics as well as a more intuitive, modular, yet precise, reference manual for the language. This semantics offers insight into the language and serves as a foundation for future work based on the language. We show how the semantics (for deterministic programs) naturally derives a Modechart compiler, which provides automatic synthesis of formal specifications. An extension to the compiler presented provides support for a fragment of the non-deterministic specifications which occur often in practice. We characterize this class and show how it can be used in automatic code generation for engineering real-time applications.

关键词： REAL-time programming programming language semantics COMPILERS (Computer programs) CODE generators

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MetaML and multi-stage programming with explicit annotations

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THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE 2000年第1-2期248卷 211-242页

作者： Taha, W Sheard, T Oregon Grad Inst Dept Comp Sci & Engn Portland OR 97291 USA

We introduce MetaML, a practically motivated, statically typed multi-stage programming language. MetaML is a "rear" language. We have built an implementation and used it to solve multi-stage problems. MetaML allows the programmer to construct, combine, and execute code fragments in a type-safe manner. Code fragments can contain free variables, but they obey the static-scoping principle. MetaML performs type-checking for all stages once and for all before the execution of the first stage. Certain anomalies with our first MetaML implementation led us to formalize an illustrative subset of the MetaML implementation. We present both a big-step semantics and type system for this subset, and prove the type system's soundness with respect to a big-step semantics. From a software engineering point of view, this means that generators written in the MetaML subset never generate unsafe programs. A type system and semantics for full MetaML is still ongoing work. We argue that multi-stage languages are useful as programming languages in their own right, that they supply a sound basis for high-level program generation technology, and that they should support features that make it possible for programmers to write staged computations without significantly changing their normal programming style. To illustrate this we provide a simple three-stage example elaborating a number of practical issues. The design of MetaML was based on two main principles that we identified as fundamental for high-level program generation, namely, cross-stage persistence and cross-stage safety. We present these principles, explain the technical problems they give rise to, and how we address with these problems in our implementation. (C) 2000 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

关键词： functional programming lambda-calculus high-level program generation type-safety type-systems programming language semantics multi-level languages multi-stage languages

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PREDICATE-TRANSFORMER semantics OF GENERAL RECURSION

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ACTA INFORMATICA 1989年第4期26卷 309-332页

作者： HESSELINK, WH 1.Department of Computing Science University of Groningen P.O. Box 800 NL-9700 AV Groningen The Netherlands

We develop the semantics of a language with arbitrary atomic statements, unbounded nondeterminacy, and mutual recursion. The semantics is expressed in weakest preconditions and weakest liberal preconditions. Individual states are not mentioned. The predicates on the state space are treated as elements of a distributive lattice. The semantics of recursion is constructed by means of the theorem of Knaster-Tarski. It is proved that the law of the excluded miracle can be preserved, if that is wanted. The universal conjunctivity of the weakest liberal precondition, and the connection between the weakest precondition and the weakest liberal precondition are proved to remain valid. Finally we treat Hoare-triple methods for proving correctness and conditional correctness of programs.

关键词： programming language semantics semiotics semantics accuracy class Elements Distributive Uncertainty language Recursion Theorem state space

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Cyber-Physical Verification of Intermittently Powered Embedded Systems

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS 2022年第11期41卷 4361-4372页

作者： Bohrer, Rose Islam, Bashima Worcester Polytech Inst Comp Sci Dept Worcester MA 01609 USA Worcester Polytech Inst Elect & Comp Engn Dept Worcester MA 01609 USA

Intermittently powered embedded systems are a foundational and growing component of the Internet of Things. It is essential to rigorously prove these systems' correctness because they arise both in safety-critical applications and applications where quality-of-service is essential to social good. Such proofs are challenging because they are simultaneously cyber-physical and time-sensitive: correctness is affected by physical properties that change with time. This article introduces a new general-purpose formal verification approach for cyber-physical properties of intermittent systems. We define a high-level modeling and specification language for intermittent systems, define its formal semantics, and prove that the language reduces to hybrid games, enabling the application of existing theorem-proving software. Cold storage for COVID vaccines serves as a running example;we provide a machine-checked proof that safe temperatures are maintained under suitable assumptions. The crux of our proof approach is to identify power and timing assumptions under which sufficient power is available to complete time-sensitive tasks. Orthogonal to approaches that prove new guarantees on power or timing, our work rigorously shows which power and timing assumptions are needed for cyber-physical correctness.

关键词： Task analysis Games Vaccines Syntactics Monitoring Temperature sensors COVID-19 Cyber-physical systems (CPSs) intermittent computing programming language semantics real-time systems

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A port ontology for conceptual design of systems

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JOURNAL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATION SCIENCE IN ENGINEERING 2004年第3期4卷 206-217页

作者： Liang, VC Paredis, CJJ Carnegie Mellon Univ Inst Complex Engineered Syst Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA Georgia Inst Technol George W Woodruff Sch Mech Engn Syst Realizat Lab Atlanta GA 30332 USA

During conceptual design of systems, the emphasis is on generating the system architecture: the configuration of sub-systems and the interactions between them. Ports, as locations of intended interaction, play an important role at this stage of design. They are convenient abstractions for representing the intended exchange of signals, energy or material;they can be applied at different levels of detail, across different energy domains, and to all aspects of design: form, function, and behavior. But to play this versatile role, ports need to be represented in an unambiguous yet flexible fashion, accommodating the differences in vocabulary and approach across different disciplines and perspectives. In this article, we introduce the semantic structure for such an unambiguous representation: a port ontology. The ontology formalizes the conceptualization of ports such that engineers and computer aided design applications can reason about component connections and interactions in system configuration. It defines ports in terms of form, function and behavior attributes and further includes axioms that can be used to support a variety of engineering design tasks, such as port refinement, port compatibility checking, and the instantiation of interaction models. A LEGO example is used to illustrate the ontology and its applications in conceptual design.

关键词： programming language semantics Conceptual design formal logic Ontologies Design knowledge representation Gates (Closures) CAD systems analysis object-oriented programming

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The Ideal HPC programming language

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COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM 2010年第7期53卷 42-47页

作者： Loh, Eugene Oracle Corp Redwood City CA USA

The article discusses the results of computer programming language studies conducted by Sun Microsystems in the context of a High Productivity Computing Systems (HPCS) program run by the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The studies attempted to determine what the optimal characteristics of a high-performance computing (HPC) programming language would be. The traditional language, Fortran, was actually found to be surprisingly effective. The main obstacles to well-written programs often involved artifacts introduced by the specific hardware limitations of central processing units, or questionable choices in a program's conceptual design, rather than limitations in the language itself.

关键词： High performance computing programming languages (Electronic computers) Computer programming Computer science FORTRAN (Computer program language) Central processing units (Computers) High performance computing research Syntax in programming languages programming language semantics Computer programming education

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