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Factor Analysis, Probabilistic Principal Component Analysis, Variational Inference, and Variational Autoencoder: Tutorial and Survey

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arXiv 2021年

作者： Ghojogh, Benyamin Ghodsi, Ali Karray, Fakhri Crowley, Mark Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Machine Learning Laboratory University of Waterloo WaterlooON Canada Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science Data Analytics Laboratory University of Waterloo WaterlooON Canada Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Centre for Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence University of Waterloo WaterlooON Canada

This is a tutorial and survey paper on factor analysis, probabilistic Principal Component Analysis (PCA), variational inference, and Variational Autoencoder (VAE). These methods, which are tightly related, are dimensionality reduction and generative models. They assume that every data point is generated from or caused by a lowdimensional latent factor. By learning the parameters of distribution of latent space, the corresponding low-dimensional factors are found for the sake of dimensionality reduction. For their stochastic and generative behaviour, these models can also be used for generation of new data points in the data space. In this paper, we first start with variational inference where we derive the Evidence Lower Bound (ELBO) and Expectation Maximization (EM) for learning the parameters. Then, we introduce factor analysis, derive its joint and marginal distributions, and work out its EM steps. Probabilistic PCA is then explained, as a special case of factor analysis, and its closed-form solutions are derived. Finally, VAE is explained where the encoder, decoder and sampling from the latent space are introduced. Training VAE using both EM and backpropagation are explained. Copyright © 2021, The Authors. All rights reserved.

关键词： Maximum principle

Ensuring the data Security and Integrity over Cloud Computing Environment using Novel Cipher Strategy

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Ensuring the Data Security and Integrity over Cloud Computin...

IEEE International Conference on Engineering Education: Innovative Practices and Future Trends (AICERA)

作者： Praveen Kumar E B. Yasotha Narmadha PG P. Chandrakala C. Ushapriya G Chamundeeswari Department of CSE (IoT) Sri Krishna College of Technology Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India Department of Data science and Business systems SRMIST kattankulathur Tamil Nadu India Department of Computer Science and Engineering Panimalar Engineering College Chennai Tamil Nadu India Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Prince Shri Venkateshwara Padmavathy Engineering College Chennai Tamil Nadu India Department of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning St. Martin's Engineering College Telangana India Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Saveetha Engineering college Chennai Tamil Nadu India

The advent of cloud computing has revolutionized the Internet. Users may effortlessly collaborate, back up, and access their information from any location thanks to cloud computing. When it comes to providing IT enabled services via the internet, cloud computing is the clear winner. Cloud computing allows a large number of people to share resources like computers, programs, and servers. Users of cloud services often have no idea where their data actually resides or where it came from. Users of cloud computing services are understandably concerned about the safety of their data once it has been uploaded to the cloud with respect to service providers. Privilege control, comprehensive encryption algorithms, management of keys, provenance instances and global consistency verification are only some of the numerous data privacy and security issues that occur as a result. This study introduces a novel cloud security strategy, Cloud based Novel Cipher Strategy (CNCS), and analyzes issues related to the safety and integrity of data stored in the cloud. We're looking into many data safety related factors here. In this article, we'll look closely at a selection of data protection strategies now in use throughout the globe to guarantee the highest level of security possible. Later, the study delves into the various methods of cloud based data security. To prevent unwanted access, alteration, or deletion of dynamic as well as static information, a procedure for validating their integrity is outlined. The proposed system CNCS efficiency is evaluated in the resulting section through the following metrics such as: integrity level, data storage efficiency and security level. All these metrics are evaluated based on the size of data, in which it is tested with respect to number of days the proposed scheme is tested over the industrial environment to prove the performance and efficiency of the proposed approach.

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Sampling Strategies for Compressive Imaging Under Statistical Noise

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Sampling Strategies for Compressive Imaging Under Statistica...

International Conference on Sampling Theory and Applications (SampTA)

作者： Frederik Hoppe Felix Krahmer Claudio Mayrink Verdun Marion I. Menzel Holger Rauhut Chair of Mathematics of Information Processing RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany Department of Mathematics Technical University of Munich Munich Germany Munich Center for Machine Learning Munich Germany Munich Data Science Institute Technical University of Munich AImotion Bavaria Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt Ingolstadt Germany Department of Physics Technical University of Munich Garching Germany GE Healthcare Munich Germany

Most of the compressive sensing literature in signal processing assumes that the noise present in the measurement has an adversarial nature, i.e., it is bounded in a certain norm. At the same time, the randomization introduced in the sampling scheme usually assumes an i.i.d. model where rows are sampled with replacement. In this case, if a sample is measured a second time, it does not add additional information. For many applications, where the statistical noise model is a more accurate one, this is not true anymore since a second noisy sample comes with an independent realization of the noise, so there is a fundamental difference between sampling with and without replacement. Therefore, a more careful analysis must be performed. In this short note, we illustrate how one can mathematically transition between these two noise models. This transition gives rise to a weighted LASSO reconstruction method for sampling without replacement, which numerically improves the solution of high-dimensional compressive imaging problems.

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Making method of moments great again? - How can GANs learn distributions

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arXiv 2020年

作者： Li, Yuanzhi Dou, Zehao Machine Learning Department Carnegie Mellon University United States Department of Statistics and Data Science Yale University United States

Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are widely used models to learn complex real-world distributions. In GANs, the training of the generator usually stops when the discriminator can no longer distinguish the generator's output from the set of training examples. A central question of GANs is that when the training stops, whether the generated distribution is actually close to the target distribution, and how the training process reaches to such configurations efficiently? In this paper, we established a theoretical results towards understanding this generator-discriminator training process. We empirically observe that during the earlier stage of the GANs training, the discriminator is trying to force the generator to match the low degree moments between the generator's output and the target distribution. Moreover, only by matching these empirical moments over polynomially many training examples, we prove that the generator can already learn notable class of distributions, including those that can be generated by two-layer neural networks. Copyright © 2020, The Authors. All rights reserved.

关键词： Generative adversarial networks

Conditional meta-learning of linear representations

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arXiv 2021年

作者： Denevi, Giulia Pontil, Massimiliano Ciliberto, Carlo Department of Computer Science University College London London United Kingdom Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia Computational Statistics and Machine Learning Genova Italy

Standard meta-learning for representation learning aims to find a common representation to be shared across multiple tasks. The effectiveness of these methods is often limited when the nuances of the tasks' distribution cannot be captured by a single representation. In this work we overcome this issue by inferring a conditioning function, mapping the tasks' side information (such as the tasks' training dataset itself) into a representation tailored to the task at hand. We study environments in which our conditional strategy outperforms standard meta-learning, such as those in which tasks can be organized in separate clusters according to the representation they share. We then propose a meta-algorithm capable of leveraging this advantage in practice. In the unconditional setting, our method yields a new estimator enjoying faster learning rates and requiring less hyper-parameters to tune than current state-of-the-art methods. Our results are supported by preliminary experiments. Copyright © 2021, The Authors. All rights reserved.

关键词： machine learning

Inflation of test accuracy due to data leakage in deep learning-based classification of OCT images

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arXiv 2022年

作者： Tampu, Iulian Emil Eklund, Anders Haj-Hosseini, Neda Department of Biomedical Engineering Linköping University Linköping581 85 Sweden Center for Medical Image Science and Visualization Linköping University Linköping581 85 Sweden Division of Statistics & Machine Learning Department of Computer and Information Science Linköping University Linköping581 83 Sweden

In the application of deep learning on optical coherence tomography (OCT) data, it is common to train classification networks using 2D images originating from volumetric data. Given the micrometer resolution of OCT systems, consecutive images are often very similar in both visible structures and noise. Thus, an inappropriate data split can result in overlap between the training and testing sets, with a large portion of the literature overlooking this aspect. In this study, the effect of improper dataset splitting on model evaluation is demonstrated for three classification tasks using three OCT open-access datasets extensively used, Kermany's and Srinivasan's ophthalmology datasets, and AIIMS breast tissue dataset. Results show that the classification performance is inflated by 0.07 up to 0.43 in terms of Matthews Correlation Coefficient (accuracy: 5% to 30%) for models tested on datasets with improper splitting, highlighting the considerable effect of dataset handling on model evaluation. This study intends to raise awareness on the importance of dataset splitting given the increased research interest in implementing deep learning on OCT data. © 2022, CC BY.

关键词： Optical tomography

Advanced Process Control in Manufacturing Using IoT Devices and Artificial Neural Networks

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Advanced Process Control in Manufacturing Using IoT Devices ...

Sustainable Expert Systems (ICSES), International Conference on

作者： V. Sumathi Ramesh S Chethan Chandra S Basavaraddi Visumathi J Ishwarya M.V S. Srinivasan Department of Mathematics Sri Sairam Engineering College Chennai Tamil Nadu India Department of Computing Technologies School of Computing College of Engineering and Technology SRM Institute of Science and Technology Kattankulathur Chennai Tamil Nadu India Department of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning R&D Don Bosco Institute of Technology VTU Belagavi Karnataka India Department of Information Technology Veltech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology Chennai Tamil Nadu India Artificial intelligence and Data science Department Agni College of Technology Chennai Tamil Nadu India Department of Biomedical Engineering Saveetha School of Engineering Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences Saveetha University Chennai Tamil Nadu India

ISBN: (数字)9798331540364

ISBN: (纸本)9798331540371

Optimization of industrial activities is significantly helped by Advanced Process Control (APC), which increases efficiency, decreases costs, and improves product quality. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and the Internet of Things (IoT) have greatly improved APC in manufacturing. It examines how APC systems may include ANNs and IoT devices in industrial processes. By connecting to a wide range of sensors placed strategically throughout a production facility, IoT devices may gather data in real time, allowing for managing and monitoring crucial parameters. To APC systems, ANNs are invaluable for predictive modeling and control due to their adaptability to changing process conditions and capacity to represent complicated nonlinear interactions. Manufacturers may gain better control over their operations, improving productivity and product quality, by using data from the IoT to train and update ANN models. Recent advances in APC using IoT devices and ANNs are reviewed in this study. Their applications in various industrial industries are discussed, and case examples are shown to demonstrate their usefulness. Further improvements in APC for manufacturing using IoT devices and ANNs may be guided by highlighting the field's problems and future research goals. Challenges with data security, integration challenges, and reliability impact the accuracy of predictive modeling, scalability, and performance of IoT systems.

关键词： Performance evaluation Adaptation models Process control Artificial neural networks Predictive models Real-time systems Manufacturing Sensors Internet of Things Monitoring

Modeling non-genetic information dynamics in cells using reservoir computing

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arXiv 2023年

作者： Niraula, Dipesh Naqa, Issam El Tuszynski, Jack Adam Gatenby, Robert A. Department of Machine Learning Moffitt Cancer Center TampaFL United States Departments of Physics and Oncology University of Alberta EdmontonAB Canada Department of Data Science and Engineering The Silesian University of Technology Gliwice44-100 Poland Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Politecnico di Torino TurinI-10129 Italy Departments of Radiology and Integrated Mathematical Oncology Moffitt Cancer Center TampaFL United States

Virtually all cells use energy and ion-specific membrane pumps to maintain large transmembrane gradients of Na+, K+, Cl−, Mg++, and Ca++. Although they consume up to 1/3 of a cell’s energy budget, the corresponding evolutionary benefit of transmembrane ion gradients remain unclear. Here, we propose that ion gradients enable a dynamic and versatile biological system that acquires, analyzes, and responds to environmental information. We hypothesize environmental signals are transmitted into the cell by ion fluxes along pre-existing gradients through gated ion-specific membrane channels. The consequent changes of cytoplasmic ion concentration can generate a local response and orchestrate global or regional responses through wire-like ion fluxes along preexisting and self-assembling cytoskeleton to engage the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and nucleus. Here, we frame our hypothesis through a quasi-physical (Cell-Reservoir) model that treats intra-cellular ion-based information dynamics as a sub-cellular process permitting spatiotemporally resolved cellular response that is also capable of learning complex nonlinear dynamical cellular behavior. We demonstrate the proposed ion dynamics permits rapid dissemination of response to information extrinsic perturbations that is consistent with experimental observations. © 2023, CC BY.

关键词： Ions

Trust AI Regulation? Discerning users are vital to build trust and effective AI regulation

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arXiv 2024年

作者： Alalawi, Zainab Bova, Paolo Cimpeanu, Theodor Stefano, Alessandro Di Duong, Manh Hong Domingos, Elias Fernández Han, The Anh Krellner, Marcus Ogbo, Bianca Powers, Simon T. Zimmaro, Filippo School Computing Engineering and Digital Technologies Teesside University United Kingdom School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews United Kingdom School of Mathematics University of Birmingham United Kingdom Machine Learning Group Université libre de Bruxelles Belgium AI Lab Vrije Universiteit Brussel Belgium School of Computing Engineering and the Built Environment Edinburgh Napier University United Kingdom Department of Mathematics University of Bologna Italy Department of Computer Science University of Pisa Italy

There is general agreement that some form of regulation is necessary both for AI creators to be incentivised to develop trustworthy systems, and for users to actually trust those systems. But there is much debate about what form these regulations should take and how they should be implemented. Most work in this area has been qualitative, and has not been able to make formal predictions. Here, we propose that evolutionary game theory can be used to quantitatively model the dilemmas faced by users, AI creators, and regulators, and provide insights into the possible effects of different regulatory regimes. We show that creating trustworthy AI and user trust requires regulators to be incentivised to regulate effectively. We demonstrate the effectiveness of two mechanisms that can achieve this. The first is where governments can recognise and reward regulators that do a good job. In that case, if the AI system is not too risky for users then some level of trustworthy development and user trust evolves. We then consider an alternative solution, where users can condition their trust decision on the effectiveness of the regulators. This leads to effective regulation, and consequently the development of trustworthy AI and user trust, provided that the cost of implementing regulations is not too high. Our findings highlight the importance of considering the effect of different regulatory regimes from an evolutionary game theoretic perspective. © 2024, CC BY.

关键词： Game theory