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Influence of human engineering on manning levels and human performance on ships

NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1997年第5期109卷 67-76页

作者： Anderson, DE Oberman, FR Malone, TB Baker, CC David E. Anderson:has a bachelor of science degree in environmental engineering from Florida Technological University and a master's degree in environmental engineering from the University of Central Florida. He is a graduate of the Naval Sea Systems Command's Engineer-In-Training (EIT) Program. Mr. Anderson was instrumental in introducing the collective protection system (CPS) in the U.S. Navy developing the initial forward-fit package for the USS Gunston Hall and the engineering change proposal (ECP) for the USS Wasp. In 1990 he joined the Human Systems Integration (HSI) Division (SEA 55W5) where he was task leader for auxiliary ships. He is currently the HSI manager for the future technology variant of the SeaLift ship and the future carrier. Association of Scientists and Engineers 33rdAnnual Technical Symposium 26 April 1996. Fred R. Oberman:has B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Chicago and Loyola University (experimental psychology) and an M.S. degree in industrial engineering and operations research from Virginia Polytechnic Institute (VPI). He has more than 30 years experience in HSI management planning research analysis design and testing in government and private sector positions. He is currently responsible for NavSea HSI generic research and tool development efforts. He is responsible for Human Engineering Specifications and Standards (Commercial Hypertext) and is the NavSea 03D7 representative on HSI in Performance Specifications and for integration of HSI within Integrated Logistic Support (ILS). He has served as DoD HSI SubTAG chair and member of the Simulation and Modeling Test and Evaluation Display and Control Systems Human Computer Interaction Specifications and Standards and Systems Design Sub Tags as a member of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) Systems Safety Panel and a member of NATO RSG 14 on man-machine analysis. Thomas B. Malone: CHFEP received a Ph.D. in experimental psychology from Fordham University in 1964. He is president of Carlow

The objectives of Human engineering (HE) are generally viewed as increasing human performance, reducing human error, enhancing personnel and equipment safety, and reducing training and related personnel costs. There are other benefits that are thoroughly consistent with the direction of the Navy of the future, chief among these is reduction of required numbers of personnel to operate and maintain Navy ships. The Naval Research Advisory Committee (NRAC) report on Man-Machine Technology in the Navy estimated that one of the benefits from increased application of man-machine technology to Navy ship design is personnel reduction as well as improving system availability, effectiveness, and safety The objective of this paper is to discuss aspects of the human engineering design of ships and systems that affect manning requirements, and impact human-performance and safety The paper will also discuss how the application of human engineering leads to improved performance, and crew safety, and reduced workload, all of which influence manning levels. Finally, the paper presents a discussion of tools and case studies of good human engineering design practices which reduce manning.

关键词： Human engineering

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PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED TLM COMPUTATION WITH SIGNAL-PROCESSING FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC-FIELD MODELING

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NUMERICAL MODELLING-ELECTRONIC NETWORKS DEVICES AND FIELDS 1995年第3-4期8卷 169-185页

作者： SO, PPM ESWARAPPA, C HOEFER, WJR NSERC/MPR Teltech Research Chair in RF Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia V8W 3P6 Canada Poman So received his B.Sc. degree in computer science and physics from the University of Toronto Toronto Onatario Canada in 1985. He obtained his B.A. Sc. and M.A.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering (summa cum laude) from the University of Ottawa Ottawa Ontario Canada in 1987 and 1989 respectively. Mr So was a research engineer in the University of Ottawa from January 1989 to October 1991 his research interests included CAD techniques of microwave circuits and numerical methods for electromagnetic wave modelling. He specialized in the development of electromagnetic engineering CAD software and successfully implemented a number of electromagnetic wave simulators based on the two-dimensional and three-dimensional transmission-line matrix methods. From August 1990 to February 1991 he accompanied Professor W. J. R. Hoefer to Rome Italy and Sophia Antiopolas France. During that time he implemented a parallel version of the 3D-TLM simulator for the CM-2 Connection Machine using C-Star and X Windows Library. He is a research engineer and a Ph.D. student at the University of Victoria Victoria British Columbia Canada. He ported the 2D- and 3D-TLM simulators to DECmpp 1200 massively parallel computer using MPL C and C++. He also combined OSA90/hope a commercially available microwave CAD program with a 2D-TLM simulation module for geometry optimization using the Datapipe technique of OSA90/hope. Recently he has developed a distributed client-server computing technique for the TLM method this technique could accelerate the TLM simulation by more than an order of magnitude. Channabasappa Eswarappa received the M.Tech. degree in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur India in 1983 and Ph. D. degree from the University of Ottawa Canada in 1990. He worked as an Assistant Executive Engineer and later as

This paper describes the implementation of transmission-line matrix (TLM) method algorithms on a massively parallel computer (DECmpp 12000), the technique of distributed computing in the UNIX environment, and the combination of TLM analysis with Prony's method as well as with autoregressive moving average (ARMA) digital signal processing for electromagnetic field modelling. By combining these advanced computation techniques, typical electromagnetic field modelling of microwave structures by TLM analysis can be accelerated by a few orders of magnitude.

关键词： Mathematical models

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A Sophisticated Ground Water Analytical Tool

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Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation 1995年第2期15卷 134-139页

作者： Tonjes, David J. Heil, James H. Black, John A. David J. Tonjes is a doctoral candidate in coastal oceanography at the Marine Sciences Research Center University at Stony Brook through its Waste Management Institute (Waste Management Institute Marine Sciences Research Center University at Stony Brook 11794–5000). Under a grant from the Town Board he is a technical adviser to the commissioner of waste management of the town of Brookhaven New York in solid waste planning regulatory compliance and environmental site monitoring. Tonjes has a B.A. in liberal arts from St. John's College an M.S. in computer science from New York Institute of Technology and an M.S. in technological systems management from the University at Stony Brook. James H. Heil is commissioner of waste management for the town of Brookhaven (Department of Waste Management Town of Brookhaven 3233 Rte. 112 Medford NY 11763). Heil received a B.S. from Manhattan College and an M.S. from New York University in civil engineering and is a licensed professional engineer in New York. He is a former president of the New York State Solid Waste Management Association. John A. Black is the coordinator of the environmental science program at Suffolk County Community College (Environmental Science Program Suffolk County Community College Selden NY 11784). He is currently the chair of the Ecology Committee of the Pine Barrens Advisory Committee for Suffolk County and is a member of the Suffolk County Pine Barrens Review Commission. Black received a B.S. in chemistry from Adephi University an M.S. in public administration from the University at Stony Book an M. S. from Hofstra University and a Ph. D. from Adlephi in marine sciences.

Stiff diagrams arc a multivariate method of analysis used to describe the chemical state of ground water. The use of Stiff diagrams to describe multiconstituent contamination sites, such as landfills, has distinct advantages over single constituent analyses. Problems associated with traditional Stiff diagram analyses, such as diagram attentuation, can be addressed by allowing the scale of the diagram to vary with the ionic strength of the analyzed sample. The use of these sliding scale Stiff diagrams reveals the chemical slate of the ground water over wide ranges of constituent concentrations and thus allows for sensitive and sophisticated depictions of complicated contamination sites in a fashion that is extremely difficult to replicate with single constituent analyses. This approach has possible applications for understanding and tracing the mixing and chemical changes in uncontaminated settings. Copyright © 1995, Wiley Blackwell. All rights reserved

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APPLICATION OF OPEN systems STANDARDS TO DOD AVIONICS

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1994年第6期106卷 65-69页

作者： ROARK, C KICZUK, B Chuck Roark: a Senior Member of the Technical Staff is currently responsible for Software IR&D within Texas Instruments Defense Systems & Electronics Group (DSEG) leading the software effort for TI's participation in the JAST program and systems engineer on the Navy's Dynamic Reconfiguration Demonstration System (DRDS) program. He is also coordinator of standards activities within DSEG. Dr. Roark formerly was manager/technical lead for the Aladdin program was responsible for software inputs in support of AX prime contractors and had software responsibilities on the LH and YF-22 programs. He currently chairs the SAE AS5 Software Committee SAE AS2 Backplane Interconnect Committee and SAE AS2 Pi-Bus Working Group is vice-chair of the IEEE POSIX P 1003.21 Real-Time Distributed Systems Communications Working Group and is member of the SAE AS5 Generic Open Avionics Architecture (GOAA) Task Group. Dr. Roark has over 40 published technical articles. Dr. Roark received a B.S. M.A. and Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of Oklahoma in 1972 1974 and 1976 respectively and a M.S. in Computer Science from Wright State University in 1980.

The DoD is transitioning to open systems standards as a means to reduce cost. Key aspects of this thrust are: (1) the development and cataloging of a preferred set of standards which can be uniformly interpreted and applied across DoD programs;(2) the ability to develop target independent software which can be affordably retargeted to rapidly evolving commercially based hardware;and (3) a method for transitioning emerging standards and products to programs with minimum risk.

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FUEL-CELL POWER-PLANTS FOR SURFACE FLEET APPLICATIONS

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1994年第3期106卷 59-76页

作者： GOUBAULT, P GREENBERG, M HEIDENREICH, T WOERNER, J Philippe Goubault:graduated in 1983 from the “Ecole Nationale Superieure de Techniques Avancees” in Paris with a major in naval architecture. After one year of military service with the French navy he worked as naval architect and program director for the French navy between 1984 and 1988. He was in charge of the development of AGNES200 Surface Effect Ship design which completed its sea trials in 1992. He also was responsible for the construction of five ships (four hydrographic vessels and one experimental MCM vessel) which entered service between 1988 and 1991. He has been involved in a number of projects and studies for the U.S. Navy U.S. Coast Guard and other foreign and domestic customers. At Band Lavis & Associates Inc. Mr. Goubault has expanded the computer tools used to conduct parametric analysis of advanced hullforms and has developed cost-effectiveness assessment tools and methodologies for both commercial and military ships. Mr. Goubault is a member of ASNE. Marc Greenberg:is employed as a cost analyst at the cost and economic analysis branch systems assessment and engineering division Naval Surface Warfare Center. He provides cost estimates and analyses of Navy ship and submarine technologies and has assisted in the development of parametric cost models since 1991. Employed as an electronics engineer by the U.S. Army Information Systems Command from 1989 to 1991 he provided support in simulation design and construction of high frequency and microwave communication systems. Mr. Greenberg received his BS degree in ceramic science and engineering from the Pennsylvania State University May 1987. He is a member of MORS. Todd Heidenreich:is employed in the design analysis and tools branch systems assessment and engineering division of the Carde-rock Division Naval Surface Warfare Center. He is involved as a project naval architect in the conceptual design of future surface ship designs future technology impact assessments and the assessment of current domestic and foreign surface ship desig

This paper describes the results of a study undertaken to determine the impact of fuel cell technology on the design and effectiveness of future naval surface combatants. The study involved the collection of data to characterize four different fuel cell technologies: proton exchange membrane, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid, and solid oxide fuel cells. This information was used to expand current computer models to develop specific fuel cell plants that met the power requirements for several applications on a nominal 5000 Lton destroyer and a nominal 2000 Lton corvette. Each of the fuel cell technologies was incorporated into several applications aboard the destroyer and the corvette. These applications included combinations of centralized and distributed ship service power, and propulsion power. In addition, the impact of fuel cell technology was determined for a ship service power backfit option aboard a DDG-51 class destroyer. The results of the impact on the ship designs were analyzed and a military effectiveness assessment was conducted to address such issues as the impact of fuel cells on mobility, survivability, affordability, and on the environment. The paper identifies which aspects of the fuel cell technologies have the greatest impact upon the ship designs and their operational costs. Recommendations are given for future technology development efforts required to make fuel cells suitable for Navy service.

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PERFORMANCE TESTING OF SHIPBOARD ELECTRONIC systems

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1993年第3期105卷 118-124页

作者： HARDER, G MARTIN, RA PE George Harder:is an electronics engineer for Naval Undersea Warfare Center Detachment Norfolk's Electromagnetic Engineering Branch located at the Norfolk Shipboard Electronic Systems Evaluation Facility (SESEF) site. He is responsible for fleet electromagnetic readiness (FEMR) inspections on board Navy ships and provides computer programming support to SESEF. Mr. Harder has a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Florida and has qualified for his professional engineering license in the state of Virginia. Robert A. Martin:is a supervisor electronics engineer employed by the Naval Undersea Warfare Center Detachment Norfolk. He functions as the branch head for the Electromagnetic Engineering Office which is responsible for the operation of the Norfolk Shipboard Electronic Systems Evaluation Facility (SESEF) and the Fleet Electromagnetic Readiness (FEMR) Program. Mr. Martin received a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Akron.

Performance evaluation of shipboard electronic systems entails debugging the systems in a laboratory environment, placing them in service and relving on svstem operators to provide feedback. General testing can be performed at selected sites by system designers, but each site where equipment is to be installed can offer unique problems. It is impossible to predict all the scenarios. Unique problems are more the rule than the exception when equipment is destined for Navy ships. Ship deployments make for difficult logistics when sending test teams to evaluate system failures. So, out of necessity, if newly installed equipment receives the proper inputs and generates the proper outputs, it is accepted and becomes the sailor's responsibilitv to maintain. In cases where documentation is ambiguous or incomplete, it is left to the sailor's ingenuity to continue testing and training on equipment. This is generallv obtained through computer simulations and back-to-back testing which can provide results for ideal conditions, but does not take the dynamics of interference into account. Remote site testing is the only way to get a true representation of equipment performance and training problems. Electronic system operators on board Navy vessels are fortunate, thev have help. There exists an organization available near major naval ports worldwide whose existence is to test electronic systems performance. The testing utilizes electronic systems as they would normally be configured for operations. This organization is the Shipboard Electronic Svstem Evaluation Facility (SESEF).

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THE AEGIS DATA BUS EXPERIMENT

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1989年第5期101卷 53-58页

作者： FRINK, JG VERVEN, DM John G. Frink is an assistant group supervisor in the Fleet Systems Department of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. He received his B.S. degree in physics from Michigan State University in 1968 and the M.S. degree in computer science from the University of Maryland in 1971. Mr. Frink worked at the Naval Surface Weapons Center White Oak Laboratory on a variety of weapons systems before joining the Applied Physics Laboratory in 1978. Mr. Frink has supervised the development of a large scale battle group simulation that successfully employs the receiver selection paradigm described herein on a hardware suite composed of an extensible number of (currently 15) processors. David M. Verven is a senior electrical engineer in the Fleet Systems Department of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. He received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland College Park in 1979 and the M. S. degree in the same discipline from The Johns Hopkins University in 1984. Mr. Verven joined the Applied Physics Laboratory in 1979 and initially worked on analysis of Navy sensor systems. In 1981 he was the AN/SPS-49 test team leader for the New Threat Upgrade (NTU) combat system land-based test. In 1982 he became involved in the development of the BBWRS system. Currently he is involved in real-time computer program development for the CEP project.

This paper documents an experiment performed by The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory to measure the effect of inserting a data bus into a combat system. The experiment was conducted at the Aegis computer Center located at the Naval Surface Weapons Center in Dahlgren, Virginia (NSWC/DL). The purpose of the experiment was to determine whether or not the Aegis Weapon System (the core of the Aegis Combat System) could be operated with a portion of its point-to-point interelement cables replaced by a data bus. The data bus chosen for the experiment employs message broadcasting with receiver selection. A primary goal of the experiment was to minimize the amount of Aegis computer program changes required to accommodate the data bus. The results presented in this paper will show that the experiment was a success. Key certification tests were passed with no computer program changes to the tactical elements and minimal changes in the Aegis tactical executive (ATES) program (less than 110 words changed).

关键词： Data Transmission Equipment

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THE QUANTIFICATION OF INTEROPERABILITY

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1989年第3期101卷 251-256页

作者： MENSH, DR KITE, RS DARBY, PH Dennis Roy Mensh:is currently the task leader Interoperability Project with the MITRE Corporation in McLean Va. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in applied physics from Loyola College in Baltimore Md. and the American University in Washington D. C. He also has completed his course work towards his Ph.D. degree in computer science specializing in the fields of systems analysis and computer simulation. He has been employed by the Naval Surface Warfare Center White Oak Laboratory Silver Spring Md. for 20 years in the areas of weapon system analysis and the development of weapon systems simulations. Since 1978 he has been involved in the development of tools and methodologies that can be applied to the solution of shipboard combat system/battle force system architecture and engineering problems. Mr. Mensh is a member of ASNE MORS IEEE U.S. Naval Institute MAA and the Sigma Xi Research Society. Robert S. Kite:is a systems engineer with the Naval Warfare Systems Engineering Department of the MITRE Corporation in McLean Va. Mr. Kite received his B.S. degree in electronic engineering from The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore Md. Mr. Kite retired from the Federal Communications Commission in 1979 and served a project manager of the J-12 Frequency Management Support Project for the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute in Annapolis Md. before joining MITRE. Mr. Kite is presently a member of ASNE the Military Operations Research Society and an associate member of Sigma Xi. Paul H. Darby:has worked in the field of interoperability both in the development of interoperability concepts and systems since joining the Department of the Navy in 1967. He was the Navy's program manager for the WestPacNorth TACS/ TADS and IFFN systems. He is currently head of the Interoperability Branch Warfare Systems Engineering Office Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command. He holds a B.S. from the U.S. Naval Academy.

JCS Pub 1 defines interoperability as “The ability of systems, units or forces to provide services to and accept services from other systems, units or forces and to use the services so exchanged to enable them to operate effectively together.” With JCS Pub 1 as a foundation, interoperability of systems, units or forces can be factored into a set of components that can quantify interoperability. These components are: media, languages, standards, requirements, environment, procedures, and human factors. The concept described in this paper uses these components as an analysis tool to enable specific detailed analyses of the interoperability of BFC3 systems, units, or forces for the purpose of uncovering and resolving interoperability issues and problems in the U.S. Navy, Joint, and Allied arenas. Also, as a management tool, the components can help determine potential interoperability characteristics of future U.S. Navy BFC3 systems for compliance with battle force systems architectures. The approach selected for the quantification of interoperability was the development of a set of measures of performance (MOPs) and measures of effectiveness (MOEs). The MOPs/MOEs were integrated with a candidate set of components, which were used to partition the totality of interoperability into measurable entities. The methodology described employs basic truth table theory in conjunction with logic equations to evaluate the interoperability components in terms of MOPs that were aggregated to MOEs. It is believed that this concept, although elementary and based on fundamental principles, represents an operationally significant approach rather than a theoretical approach to the quantification of interoperability. The vehicle used as a means to measure the MOPs and MOEs was the Research Evaluation and systems Analysis (RESA) computer modeling and simulation capability at the Naval Ocean systems Center (NOSC), San Diego, Calif. Data for the measurements were collected during a Tactical I

关键词： Military engineering

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TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION MANAGEMENT IN THE ERA OF THE PAPERLESS SHIP

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1989年第3期101卷 61-72页

作者： CHICKERING, JE QUALLS, WB John E. Chickering:is a systems analyst with American Management Systems Inc. in Arlington Virginia. Mr. Chickering received his BS degree in marine engineering from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point New York in 1981 and his MBA degree in operations research and statistics from the University of Maryland in 1985. He is a licensed third assistant engineer of steam and motor vessels and a member of the Naval Reserve. Mr. Chickering's work includes the design and specification of several management information systems for the U.S. Navy including one that will automate the Navy's engineering drawing management system. Most recently Mr. Chickering has helped develop a workstation for the Navy's Paperless Ship Initiative. William B. Quails:is a management consultant with American Management Systems Inc. in Arlington Virginia. Mr. Quails received his BA degree in English from the Tulane University in New Orleans Louisiana in 1977 and his MPA degree in management science from the University of Georgia in 1982. Mr. Quails participated in the design and development of the U.S. Navy's Shipboard Non-tactical ADP Program II (SNAP II). Recently Mr. Quails has participated in the design and development of several knowledge-based computer systems using artificial intelligence programming technologies. Mr. Quails is a member of Pi Alpha Alpha an honorary public affairs and administration society.

The U.S. Navy relies heavily on advanced technology to carry out its missions. As a consequence, today's sailors are spending increasing amounts of time maintaining and repairing complex systems and equipment. In performing these duties, sailors depend on supporting technical documentation. As the complexity of systems and equipment grow, the volume and complexity of this technical documentation also increases. As a result, technical information, one of the Navy's critical resources, is simultaneously becoming more vital and more difficult to use. The Navy is meeting this challenge by exploring innovative approaches to the management of technical documentation. One example is the Paperless Ship Initiative, which employs optical disk technology as the primary means for document storage. Optical disks can store large volumes of technical information in a small space. One way to take advantage of this auto mated access is to make technical information more readily accessible and easier to use. As an example, a technical manual can be organized on an optical disk into discrete segments of text and indexed for fast retrieval by section, subsection, or paragraph. Furthermore, mechanisms can be developed which allow computer-supported links between logically related segments of the text. This style of interface allows a user to interact directly with the textual passages and to establish new organizational and referential links between them. This style of interface falls under the general category of hypertext (also known as linked text ). The combination of optical disk storage and hypertext offers new possibilities for improving access to large volumes of technical documentation while maintaining all of the advantages of traditional paper-based documentation. This paper begins with a discussion of the need for better technical documentation support. Alternatives that can fulfill this need are reviewed and the role of hypertext is described. The paper illustrates a sample

关键词： Information Retrieval systems

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NEW TECHNOLOGY IN OIL CONTENT MONITORS

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NAVAL engineerS JOURNAL 1989年第2期101卷 48-55页

作者： NARDELLA, JA RAW, TT STOKES, GH John A. Nardella is the life-cycle manager for oil content monitor equipment for the Naval Sea Systems Command Washington D.C. He has an M.S. degree in chemical engineering from the Pennsylvania State University and is a licensed professional engineer in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Dr. Timothy T. Raw is the principal investigator responsible for the oil contamination monitor project. He has a doctorate in physical chemistry from Rensselear Polytechnical Institute and a B.A. in chemistry and computer science from Saint Louis University. Dr. Raw is currently a staff member at Anheuser Busch Inc. in Saint Louis. Dr. Grant H. Stokes is responsible for the technical management of Geo-Centers Inc. Boston operation. He has doctorate and M. S. degrees in physics from Princeton University and a B.A. from Colorado College. Previous to joining Geo-Centers Inc. he was a staff member in the Laser Fusion Program at Los Alamos National Laboratory.

International antipollution requirements have been legislated to regulate the oil content of bilge effluent from ships. In response to these standards, the U.S. Navy is currently in the process of installing pollution abatement equipment on all vessels. The equipment will consist of an oil-water separator in the bilge discharge line, followed by an oil content monitor which makes the final decision on whether or not the water is clean enough to be pumped overboard. The monitor is required to make a real-time measurement of oil concentration in the range 15 ± 5 to 100 ± 20 ppm for flow rates up to 50 gal/min. and possibly in the presence of interfering contaminants, such as rust. This paper presents the results of the current effort to develop a monitor which satisfies all of these requirements and is sufficiently rugged for fleet deployment. The monitor under development employs two fiber optic systems and a small microprocessor. The first optical system measures the concentration of particles in the flow as a function of their sizes, using small angle forward scattering. The second determines what percentage of the particles in the flow are oil, using large angle scattering. The microprocessor takes the data from the two optical systems and calculates the oil concentration in the flow. Since the particle size is measured by the monitor, no sample preparation is required and the monitor may be placed directly in the discharge line where it responds to changes in oil content in less than one second. In addition, this monitor can notify the operator of impending oil-water separator failure associated with passing large oil particles. A demonstration monitor consisting of the forward scattering unit has been successfully tested at the NavSea oil pollution abatement test facility at the Naval Ship systems engineering Station at Philadelphia. The monitor agrees well with chemical means of measuring oil content. Results of this comparison and laboratory test of a prototyp

关键词： Water Pollution

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